Work - Volume 68, issue s1

Authors: Vink, Peter | Frohriep, Susanne | Mansfield, Neil | Naddeo, Alessandro | Jacobs, Karen

Article Type: Editorial

Abstract: Various aspects related to comfort are described in this special issue. Some papers are focused on the environment, like smell, temperature, light, acoustics, space and some on an artefact touching the human, like the floor angle, the seat, a bed and light. However, in this special issue also topics like modelling and behavior get more attention.

Keywords: Review, comfort, model, main findings, ICC2019

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208000

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S1-S5, 2021

Authors: Anjani, Shabila | Song, Yu | Vink, Peter

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Recent research indicated that an 18′′  ×30′′ aircraft seat resulted in nearly the same level of comfort as a 17′′  ×34′′ seat. However, it took less space in the floor plan. OBJECTIVES: This study explores seat layouts preferred by experts regarding different criteria. Those results of the experts are later compared to layouts produced by computational algorithms to evaluate the advantages of each method. METHODS: Eighty-eight experts in the field of aircraft interior were invited to make a floor plan of a part of a Boeing 777 aircraft where comfort was one of …the main goals. Participants worked in groups of 3 and are given the freedom to design a section of the cabin between economy and first-class (5.87 m wide and 3.7 m long), where besides these two types of seats, an old business-class size seat of 20′′  ×36′′ was introduced as well for more flexibilities in design. Computational algorithms were also applied with the same inputs and constraints to generate layouts as a comparison. RESULTS: In total, 29 floor-plans were made, and these plans were analysed to compare against the complexity of the operations, the number of passengers on board, the revenue of the airline, and the width of the aisle. Results showed that 14 groups opted for the economy seats, while the rest utilized a hybrid setup where the business class seats were used in the configuration. These results are compared to the 126 computerized layouts generated. CONCLUSIONS: Among all layouts designed by experts, a combination of 28 18′′  ×30′′ seats and 20 17′′  ×34′′ seats had the highest potential revenue of US$21,984. This floor plan fits the regulations with an aisle width of 0.93 m. The computerized layout had a better outcome in maximizing profit of US$22,416 with 32 18′′  ×30′′ seats and 16 20′′  ×36′′ seats. However, the comfort of such results was to be explored as some seats were rotated 90 degrees. Show more

Keywords: Aircraft seat, pitch, width, comfort, layout

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208001

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S7-S18, 2021

Authors: Anjani, Shabila | Kühne, Manon | Naddeo, Alessandro | Frohriep, Susanne | Mansfield, Neil | Song, Yu | Vink, Peter

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Selecting the most suitable questionnaire(s) in comfort research for product design is always a challenge, even for experienced researchers. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this research is to create a list of Preferred Comfort Questionnaires (PCQ) for product design to help researchers in the selection of questionnaires for comfort research. METHODS: Fifteen questionnaires that are often used in comfort research for product design were selected as candidate questionnaires. During the Second International Comfort Congress (ICC 2019), 55 researchers and practitioners working in the field of comfort joined together in a workshop to rate these questionnaires individually …as well as rank them in groups based on their experience. The criteria of rating and ranking included easiness to answer, easiness for data interpretation, time needed to complete, the need for prior training, as well as mapping the applicable design phases and field of application. RESULTS: The elicited responses related to each questionnaire were analyzed. For comfort research in five proposed application fields and four design phases, the preferred questionnaires were highlighted and categorized into four categories: preferred questionnaire, suitable for less prior training, suitable for fast completion and generally applicable, which led to a list of PCQ for product design. CONCLUSION: We expect that the PCQ list can be used as a useful instrument to help researchers in selecting questionnaires for comfort research in product design. Show more

Keywords: Comfort, discomfort, questionnaire, product design, research

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208002

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S19-S28, 2021

Authors: Backes, Damian | Trenktrog, Marten | Eckstein, Lutz

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The increasing electrification poses new challenges with respect to thermal comfort in vehicle passenger cabins. While conventional air heating with electric heaters is technically possible, it causes significant reductions in the electric driving range. OBJECTIVE: Two contradicting objectives are to be achieved: Fast heat up to provide thermal comfort and high energy efficiency to maximize the driving range under all conditions. METHODS: This apparent area of conflict can be eased by the usage of low temperature radiation reducing the energy intensive heat up of the cabin air. In order to provide high energy efficiency, the …emitted radiation should mostly be directed towards relevant body regions of the passengers, resulting in the necessity to redesign the passenger cabin. RESULTS: A novel approach to redesign and optimize the dashboard and a resulting radiation heating system are presented. In order to reduce computational effort of such an optimization, the complex three-dimensional geometry is sliced into simplified two-dimensional regions which are considered individually. The resulting heating system has been manufactured and integrated into a class A vehicle. Objective thermal comfort measurements as well as subjective comfort ratings have been conducted to validate the simulative approach and the resulting energy savings of approximately 30 %. CONCLUSIONS: The developed approach to achieve a fast time to comfort as well as an increased energy efficiency shows promising results as the heating system based on it cuts performs well considering objective and subjective measurements. Show more

Keywords: Thermal management, thermal comfort, comfort simulation, comfort measurement

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208003

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S29-S35, 2021

Authors: Burkhard, Georg | Berger, Tobias | Enders, Erik | Schramm, Dieter

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: With the development of autonomous driving, the occupants’ comfort perception and their activities during the drive are becoming increasingly the focus of research. Especially in one of the first applications, a drive on a motorway, vertical dynamics play a major role. OBJECTIVE: To be able to robustly objectify ride comfort, better models need to be developed. Initial studies have shown, that the current ISO-2631 standard creates good results in the objectification and can be regarded as benchmark. METHODS: To increase the accuracy in objectification, an extended model with the occupants’ head as additional measuring point …is introduced. Instead of the known frequency filters, weighting (k-factors) is used to differentiate possible excitations. For comparing the model with the ISO-2631, a simulator study with 5 excitations and 50 inattentive subjects is carried out. RESULTS: Evaluating the study with the ISO-2631, 3 out of 5 excitations indicate a significant difference between the occupant’s impression and the calculated comfort value. In comparison the extended model has no significant difference. CONCLUSION: The results further show, that inattentive occupants move their heads significantly more. By measuring accelerations of the head, the extended model creates equivalent or more accurate comfort values than the ISO-2631. Show more

Keywords: Objectification, comfort model, ISO-2631, whole body vibrations, inattentive occupant

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208004

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S37-S45, 2021

Authors: Califano, Rosaria | Cecco, Marianeve | De Cunzo, Giuseppina | Napolitano, Nicoletta | Rega, Emanuela | Fiorillo, Iolanda | Naddeo, Alessandro

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: In recent years, a growing interest in ergonomics and comfort perception in secondary schools and universities can be detected, to go beyond the UNI-EN regulations and understanding how practically improve students’ perceived comfort during lessons. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to analyse the (dis)comfort perceived by students while sitting in a combo-desk during lessons; it proposed a method for understanding and weighing the influence of postural factors on overall (dis)comfort. METHODS: Twenty healthy students performed a random combination of three different tasks in two sessions - listening, reading on a tablet and writing. Subjective perceptions were …investigated through questionnaires, in which the expected and the overall comfort were evaluated; postural angles were gathered by processing photos through Kinovea® software and were used for the virtual-postural analysis, using a DHM (Digital Human Modelling) software; statistical analysis was used to investigate the influence of subjective comfort of each body part on the overall perceived comfort. RESULTS: The statistical correlations were used to perform an optimization problem in order to create a general law to formulate the overall comfort function, for each task, as a weighted sum of the comfort perceived in each body part. The test procedure, additionally, evaluated the influence on comfort over time. The results showed how the upper back and the task-related upper limb are the most influencing factors in the overall comfort perception. CONCLUSIONS: The paper revealed a precise and straightforward analysis method that can be easily repeated for other design applications. Obtained results can suggest to designers easy solution to re-design the combo-desk. Show more

Keywords: Perceived (dis)comfort, school seat, combo-desk, school activities, students wellbeing

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208005

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S47-S57, 2021

Authors: Cappetti, Nicola | Manso, Emmanuel Di

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: One of the aspects that influences the sitting comfort is the distribution of the pressure applied to the skin by the seat surface. In the scientific literature, many studies show experimental activities in order to evaluate the influence of pressure distribution at the seat-human interface on the comfort evaluation. The main limitation in seat design is based on the difficulties to predict the contact pressures distribution without prototypes because of the complex interaction among body muscles, wearing, human’s anthropometric characteristics, shape and materials of the seat. Moreover, the same human can assume different postures on the same seat, and …different people, seated on the same chair, can assume different postures even if they have the same anthropometric percentile. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to propose a mathematical model evaluating interaction loads between human segments and seat segments. METHOD: In this model, a human body represented by 8 segments is placed on a 6 segments seat with posture dependent on seat segments and on position of the coccyx on seat and feet on floor. Human segments can be configured in length and weight and friction between body and seat is considered. A model validation study based on an experimental comparison with contact pressures is also presented. RESULTS: The experiment showed that there is a remarkable recursion of some stress values of the articular joints of the pelvis, hip and knee. By imposing these values in the calculation model, it is possible to determine, for each chair configuration, which postures will be assumed by a person, and to make a preliminary assessment of the level of comfort possible. Show more

Keywords: Seating posture, seat, contact pressures, modelling

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208006

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S59-S68, 2021

Authors: Erol, Tugra | Diels, Cyriel | Shippen, James | Richards, Dale

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The role of appearance of automotive seats on perceived comfort and comfort expectancy has been acknowledged in previous research but it has not been investigated in depth. OBJECTIVE: To identify the effects of the appearance of production automotive seats, based on the hypothesis that visual design differentiations are affective in creating comfort expectations. The significance of the descriptors Sporty , Luxurious and Comfortable and the associated visual design attributes was of interest. METHOD: Images from 38 automotive production seats were used in an image-based card sorting app (qCard) with a total of 24 …participants. Participants were asked to categorize the different seat designs varying from 1: least, to 9: most for all three descriptors.The resulting data was analyzed using hierarchical clustering analysis. RESULTS: The results indicated that the perceived Sporty , Luxurious and Comfortable were descriptor items that significantly differentiated seats with certain design attributes. It was found that for the Sporty perception the integrated headrest design and angular shapes were key. On the other hand, the Comfort perception was characterised by seating with a separate headrest and rounded seat back/cushion shapes. CONCLUSIONS: For seat design processes, the method enables a practical way to identify elements conveying Sporty, Comfortable and Luxurious perception. Show more

Keywords: Automotive, seat, comfort experience, visual impression, attribute mapping

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208007

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S69-S85, 2021

Authors: Fiorillo, Iolanda | Anzisi, Federico Jacopo | Carbone, Alfonso | Califano, Rosaria | Naddeo, Alessandro

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: According to ergonomic researches regarding a good sitting posture, it is essential to ensure a natural back-curve in order to prevent musculoskeletal disorders. A brief observation among the Scientific Technology Library inside the University of Salerno showed that students used to complain about neck and lumbar pain, especially after a study day. OBJECTIVE: On the light of this background, a sitting posture comfort analysis had been performed on chairs inside the library to check the critical factors that influence the postural comfort and, consequently, the learning. METHODS: A prolonged sitting posture, that is common during …the daily study activity, had been simulated with fifteen volunteer students performing 1-hour tests (divided into four 15-minutes tasks). Subjective perceptions had been gathered through questionnaires rating on a 5-point Comfort scale, both the expected comfort at the beginning of the experiment and the Localized Postural Comfort at the end of each task have been investigated. Then, postural angles had been gathered through photographic acquisition and Kinovea®. CaMAN software had been used to calculate the objective (dis)comfort indexes. Finally, subjective and objective data had been statistically processed and compared. RESULTS: Lumbar area scored the lowest perceived comfort while the perceived comfort was independent of participants and tasks, but dependent on time. CONCLUSIONS: After this comfort-driven analysis, critical factors of the chair-design were checked, and a proposal for a future re-design was hypothesized. Show more

Keywords: Comfort, office seat, students, library, postural comfort-driven redesign

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208008

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S87-S100, 2021

Authors: Gentner, Alexandre | Gradinati, Giuliano | Favart, Carole | Gyamfi, Kojo Sarfo | Brusey, James

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: For passengers in private or public transportation systems, comfort is a major interest. Available comfort models are already used to correlate thermal comfort to influencing factors. However, the available models do not other sensory comfort aspect and specific influences as fragrances and ambient light. OBJECTIVE: This publication investigates the impact of fragrances with “warm” and “cold” associated meanings on thermal and overall comfort perception. METHODS: Human subject trials (n  = 47) were performed in different temperature-controlled environments following a 3×3 within-subject design considering ambient fragrance (“neutral scent”, “peppermint”, “orange & cinnamon”) and ambient light as variables. …RESULTS: Olfactory comfort is shown to have the larger effect on overall comfort perception, comparable in weight to the one of thermal comfort. The impact observed on thermal sensation was in line with the meanings associated the fragrances, whereas it was positive on thermal comfort appreciation regardless of the type of fragrance diffused. CONCLUSIONS: These initial results suggest that olfactory stimulations have the potential to positively impact thermal and overall comfort. The appreciation of the fragrance appears to have a major impact on these interactions and should be deeply considered in future research and features development. Show more

Keywords: Overall comfort, olfactory comfort, thermal comfort, fragrance diffusion, automotive context

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208009

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S101-S110, 2021

Authors: Mansfield, Neil J. | Walia, Kartikeya | Singh, Aditya

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Autonomous vehicles can be classified on a scale of automation from 0 to 5, where level 0 corresponds to vehicles that have no automation to level 5 where the vehicle is fully autonomous and it is not possible for the human occupant to take control. At level 2, the driver needs to retain attention as they are in control of at least some systems. Level 3-4 vehicles are capable of full control but the human occupant might be required to, or desire to, intervene in some circumstances. This means that there could be extended periods of time where the …driver is relaxed, but other periods of time when they need to drive. OBJECTIVE: The seat must therefore be designed to be comfortable in at least two different types of use case. METHODS: This driving simulator study compares the comfort experienced in a seat from a production hybrid vehicle whilst being used in a manual driving mode and in autonomous mode for a range of postures. RESULTS: It highlights how discomfort is worse for cases where the posture is non-optimal for the task. It also investigates the design of head and neckrests to mitigate neck discomfort, and shows that a well-designed neckrest is beneficial for drivers in autonomous mode. Show more

Keywords: Autonomous vehicles, automated driving, seating, simulator study, backrest, comfort

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208010

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S111-S118, 2021

Authors: Moertl, Peter | Hoefler, Margit | Ewerz, Benjamin

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: We motivate and describe a holistic comfort model to account for the impact of driver and passenger activities on their comfort experiences in vehicles. The proposed model is an expansion of existing ones and postulates two dimensions of comfort that are linked with cognitive moderation processes toward holistic experience: physiological comfort combines multiple physiological experiences such as thermal, auditory, and postural comfort and is moderated via cognitive processes of focusing or masking. On the other hand, emotional comfort reflects the experience of activities and is moderated by cognitive appraisal processes. OBJECTIVE: Using this model, we derive three …hypotheses that are examined. METHOD: In a driving simulator study, 32 participants assessed holistic and physiological comfort while driving under various conditions. RESULTS: The participant responses on various comfort questions loaded on two main principal components that closely resemble the distinction between holistic and physiological comfort. Also, the driving and non-driving activity types seemed to have a different impact on holistic versus physiological comfort as predicted by our model. Show more

Keywords: Virtual development, comfort, comfort model, holistic comfort, automotive comfort, human-systems integration

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208011

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S119-S128, 2021

Authors: Naddeo, Alessandro | Di Brigida, Liliana | Fontana, Carlotta | Montese, Jessica | Quartuccia, Manuel | Nasti, Mario | Pisani, Matteo Maria | Turco, Vito | De Stefano, Marco | Fiorillo, Iolanda | Califano, Rosaria

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Nowadays, the ergonomic study of the driving position is a critical aspect of automotive design. Indeed, due to the rising needs on the market, one focus for car industries is to improve the perceived comfort related to the cars’ interior. Driving a car for a prolonged time could cause complaints in some body-regions, especially in the lumbar-sacral area. Thus, special lumbar-sacral supports for driver seat has been proposed for reducing this kind of complaints. OBJECTIVE: Development of two virtual and physical models of lumbar-sacral support for improving both the lumbar/sacral and overall perceived comfort while driving. …METHODS: Two prototypes of lumbar/sacral support have been realized: the first one was integrated into the seat, and the second one was shaped as a removable pillow (removable support). Fifty participants were asked to rate the perceived comfort in lab tests performed on a seating-buck by comparing three configurations (5 min each): a standard seat, seat with the removable support, seat with integrated support. Subjective data (by questionnaires) and objective data (interface pressure between backrest and driver) have been acquired and statistically processed. In addition, real driving tests have been performed to test the actual performance of the removable support in term of perceived comfort comparing it with the standard seat. RESULTS: Statistical correlations between subjective and objective data showed interesting results in comfort improvement through the adopted solutions. Real driving tests showed an improvement in comfort perception with the lumbar-sacral support towards the standard seat. CONCLUSIONS: Thanks to the virtual prototyping and the application of previous knowledge, coming from literature and experience, a solution for improving the overall comfort and reduce the lumbar/sacral pain while driving has been developed, tested, and assessed. Show more

Keywords: Car seat comfort, seat design, lumbar-sacral support, body-shaped pillow

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208012

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S129-S138, 2021

Authors: Naddeo, Alessandro | Cappetti, Nicola

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Human-centred design asks for wellbeing and comfort of the customer/worker when interacting with a product. Having a good perception-model and an objective method to evaluate the experienced (dis)comfort by the product user is needed for performing a preventive comfort evaluation as early as possible in the product development plan. The mattress of a bed is a typical product whose relevance in everyday life of people is under-evaluated. Fortunately, this behaviour is quickly changing, and the customer wants to understand the product he/she buys and asks for more comfortable and for scientifically assessed products. No guidelines for designing a personalized …mattress are available in the literature. OBJECTIVES: This study deals with the experience of designing an innovative product whose product-development-plan is focused on the customer perceived comfort: a personalized mattress. The research question is: which method can be used to innovate or create a comfort-driven human-centred product? METHODS: Virtual prototyping was used to develop a correlated numerical model of the mattress. A comfort model for preventively assessing the perceived comfort was proposed and experimentally tested. Mattress testing sessions with subjects were organized, and collected data were compared with already tested mattresses. Brainstorming and multi-expert methods were used to propose, realize, and test an archetype of a new mattress for final comfort assessment. RESULTS: A new reconfigurable mattress was developed, resulting in two patents. The mattress design shows that personalized products can be tuned according to the anthropometric data of the customer in order to improve the comfort experience during sleep. CONCLUSIONS: A “comfort-driven design guideline” was proposed; this method has been based on the use of virtual prototyping, virtual optimization and physical prototyping and testing. It allowed to improve an existing product in a better way and to bring innovation in it. Show more

Keywords: Comfort, mattress, design, personalized product, innovation

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208013

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S139-S150, 2021

Authors: Liu, Zhihui | Rotte, T. | Anjani, S. | Vink, P.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Staggered seats are a solution for the Flying-V aircraft, where the cabin’s longitudinal axis has a 26 degrees angle with respect to the direction of flight, to compensate for an otherwise oblique sitting position. However, little is known on acceptable pitches in this staggered configuration. OBJECTIVE: The goal of this research is to evaluate the comfort of different pitches for seats that are staggered relative to the cabin’s longitudinal axis. METHODS: Two rows of staggered seats are positioned at three different pitches (27, 29 and 31 inches). 53 participants were seated in each setup. For …each, a questionnaire was completed including questions on comfort and discomfort, top view photos were taken to analyse postures and physical dimensions were recorded to define passengers’ space. RESULTS: Comfort as well as discomfort were significantly different for the three setups. The comfort at 27 inches was seen as unacceptably low. The 29 and 31-inch configurations showed to result in acceptable levels of comfort, comparable to higher-end seating layouts. There were very little complaints about space in lateral direction (elbow and seat width), showing the advantage of having your won armrest and shoulder space in the staggered configuration. Interesting was that at larger pitches more complaints were found for the seat characteristics, probably in the shorter pitch the other discomfort was overruling this. CONCLUSION: The 26-degree staggered configuration offers improvements in shoulder- and elbow-space. The results for the 29- and 31-inch are expected to allow enough design freedom for further exploration of such a configuration for the Flying-V cabin interior. Show more

Keywords: Staggered seats, oblique sitting, seat pitch, comfort, sitting postures

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208014

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S151-S159, 2021

Authors: Liu, Yuezhi (Sean) | Zhong, Xianzhi | Ghebreiyesus, Wintta | Ji, Jiancheng | Xi, Fengfeng (Jeff)

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: This paper outlines a method to study the interaction between the human body and the aircraft seat concerning the seat comfort. METHOD: Firstly, the human body is modeled based on biomechanics and divided into a number of body segments connected by joints according to human anatomy. The angles between the body segments are obtained by curve fitting of the existing biomechanical research data. The contact forces between the human body and the seat are modeled using pairs of bi-lateral point forces. These forces are calculated and located through the analysis of the center of gravity of each …body segment and average muscular structure of the human body. The geometry of the human and the seat is obtained from a 3D scan model or a CAD model. Secondly, the pressure distribution between the human body and the seat is modeled and calculated using the contact stress theory. The results of the two parts are combined to analyze the comfortability in relation to different postures, backrest recline angles and changing in shape and material. RESULTS: Simulations were performed and they are compared with experimental measurement and various FEM studies for validation. It is found that accuracy of this method is comparable with most FEM calculation. CONCLUSION: This method provides a new direction in cushion conform research. It is faster and convenient to use comparing to the FEM, and the result is reliable. Show more

Keywords: Bio-modeling, contact modeling, seat-human interaction, seating comfort, interface pressure distribution

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208015

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S161-S182, 2021

Authors: Sharafkhani, Mahnaz | Argyle, Elizabeth | Cobb, Sue | Tennent, Paul

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Aircraft passengers’ physical activity levels are often limited during flight for extended periods of time, which can have serious impact on health, comfort, and passenger experience. However, several factors, such as limited personal space and social factors, can make movement difficult. OBJECTIVE: The study aimed to identify participant behaviour and postures during medium to long-haul flights and their effect on location and severity of physical discomfort. This work investigated how aircraft passengers’ comfort ratings changed over time and explored the association between postures and comfort ratings during flight. The study also explored the association between performing in-flight …exercises and factors limiting participants’ abilities to complete these exercises. METHOD: Twenty-nine participants sat in an aircraft simulated cabin for 180 minutes and periodically performed in-seat exercises. They also completed a questionnaire providing data on demographic information, self-reported discomfort scores for multiple areas of the body, which types of exercises participants performed, and qualitative comments about discomfort. Self-reported comfort ratings were measured at 20 min intervals and posture identification was conducted by analysing the video recordings. RESULTS: Six postures were identified, and it was observed that individual participants changed posture at least once and up to nine times during the three-hour period. Body part areas with the highest reported scores of discomfort ratings were: back of the neck, back-left shoulder, back-right shoulder, back-left buttock, and lower back. Participants reported that they had difficulty in performing recommended in-flight exercises due to limited space. CONCLUSIONS: Limited space in aircraft seating restricts passenger movement. Some body areas are more prone to discomfort. Show more

Keywords: Passenger experience, comfort, body part discomfort

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208016

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S183-S195, 2021

Authors: Smith, Jordan | Phillips, Stephen | Bowler, Nic | Conway, Harry | Caglar, Levent

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: A robust rail seat comfort assessment can inform the GB rail industry when procuring new seats and identify areas for comfort improvement in the refurbishment of existing seats, improving the customer experience. OBJECTIVE: To take a multifactorial approach to measuring comfort and to create a robust seat comfort assessment method for the GB rail industry. METHODS: Seat comfort assessment scores were developed by identifying seat dimensions (e.g. Seat height, seat width, seat depth), seat pad thickness and hardness requirements, seat accessories and seat attractiveness components. Scores for each seat feature were verified by conducting a …fitting trial and asking 7 participants to rank dimensions through a range of adjustment. The combined scoring of features was verified by asking 14 participants to rank seats in three configurations (<minimum comfort; minimum comfort;>minimum comfort). The seat comfort dimensions scores were then validated by ranking seven existing rail seats using the assessment method and comparing the ranks with subjective comfort ranks of 12 participants. RESULTS: The validation testing resulted in a moderate positive correlation, indicating an alignment between the seat comfort assessment method and subjective comfort scores. CONCLUSIONS: A multifactorial seat comfort assessment has been shown to be a good indicator of passenger seat comfort. Show more

Keywords: Seat comfort, seat design, rail travel, customer experience

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208017

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S197-S208, 2021

Authors: Han, Lu | Zhang, Hechen | Xiang, Zhongxia | Shang, Jinze | Anjani, Shabila | Song, Yu | Vink, Peter

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The contrast between a bright computer screen and a dark ambient environment may influence comfort of the users, especially on their eyes. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this research is to identify the optimal desktop lighting for the comfortable use of the computer screen in a dark environment. METHODS: An experiment was designed where seven illumination setups were introduced for the users to perform their leisure tasks on a computer screen. Fifteen healthy subjects participated in the experiments. During each session, durations of the eye blinks, fixations and saccades of the user were recorded by an …eye tracker. His/her neck and trunk movements were recorded by a motion tracking system as well. The comfort/discomfort questionnaire, localized postural discomfort questionnaire, NASA task load index and computer user questionnaire were used to record the overall comfort/discomfort, the local perceived physical discomfort, the cognitive workload, and general/eye health problems, respectively. RESULTS: Subjective and objective measurement results indicated that users felt more comfortable with high intensity warm lights using a computer screen. We also identified that the eye fixation durations, as well as the scores of two questions in the computer user questionnaire, have significant negative correlations with comfort. On the other side, the durations of blinks and the scores of three questions in the computer user questionnaire, were significantly correlated with discomfort. CONCLUSION: The warm (3000K) and high intensity (1500 lux) light reduced the visual and cognitive fatigue of the user and therefore improve the comfort of the user during the use of a computer screen. Show more

Keywords: Light, design, eye tracking

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208018

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S209-S221, 2021

Authors: Tang, Zhi | Liu, Zhihui | Tang, Yingte | Dou, Jinzhen | Xu, Chang | Wang, Lina

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: More and more people choose to travel by high-speed railway. The seats in these vehicles are an important contact point and comfort of the seat cushions needs attention. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to choose among three seat cushions, the one that creates most comfort for a high-speed train. METHODS: Twelve healthy volunteers were selected to participate in the experiment. Three different surface shape models of high-speed railway seat cushions were used. The Seat Pressure Distribution Index (SPD%) was calculated and analysed. A 7-point Likert scale questionnaire was applied for subjective evaluation. …RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The evaluation is based on subjective and objective data. The results showed that the front protruding cushion made the pressure distribution more even, while the flat cushion had the smallest SPD% and the static pressure was most evenly distributed. This knowledge was beneficial for the design of comfortable high-speed railway seat cushions. Show more

Keywords: High-speed railway, seat cushion, body pressure distribution, sitting posture

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208019

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S223-S229, 2021

Authors: Torkashvanda, G. | Li, M. | Vink, P.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The Human-Centered Design methodology advocates VR prototyping, as an effective tool to evaluate concepts in a cost-efficient, time-saving way. It is the question of whether it works in the development of a product intended to increase privacy while flying. OBJECTIVE: The current study aims at the application of virtual reality on the evaluation of a new privacy bubble called PRIVA for the passenger cabin. METHODS: An interactive VR was created and aligned with the HTC VIVE headset. 40 participants took part in the experiment as well as in the post-experiment survey. RESULTS: The …concept was in overall, desirable as it was perceived to be more private, comfortable, satisfactory, effective, and appealing to participants compared to the current seat experiences. It was also perceived as more satisfactory with regards to the activities. CONCLUSIONS: The VR was effective, although there are limitations, the product seems promising and should be developed further. Show more

Keywords: Prototyping, virtual reality, VR, human-centered design, concept evaluation, desirability, aircraft interior, privacy bubble

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208020

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S231-S238, 2021

Authors: Torkashvand, G. | Stephane, L. | Vink, P.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Cabin research is mostly based on passenger reports. However, it is also important to consider the perceptions of flight attendants as onboard service providers, since they can convey a complementary view shedding light on important aspects related to passenger experience. OBJECTIVE: This study seeks to analyze flight-attendants’ perception regarding passengers’ inflight activities and experience. METHODS: Twenty-eight flight attendants were interviewed on more than twenty-three inflight activities that were extracted from a brainstorming session. A survey was designed based on these activities and was distributed to flight attendants. RESULTS: Overall, flight attendants perceived the …activities ‘resting/relaxing’, ‘sleeping’ and ‘using the restroom’ for comfort as the most important activities to passengers, while activities ‘talking to neighbors’ and ‘thinking and observing’ were the least important ones. Interesting was the fact that flight attendants scored satisfaction of some activities higher then passengers. CONCLUSIONS: Flight attendants had a similar idea on importance of activities of passengers, but they valued some activities as more satisfactory. Show more

Keywords: Passenger satisfaction, activities, participatory design, cabin design, passenger experience, flight attendant

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208021

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S239-S243, 2021

Authors: Udomboonyanupap, Sumalee | Boess, Stella | Ribeiro Monteiro, Luciana | Vink, Peter

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The number of smartphone users is immense. People can do ever more with a smartphone. Smartphones are used everywhere, including in bed and on the sofa. The awkward postures taken in these situations affect comfort and discomfort. In designing a bed, it might be useful to know which position is comfortable for smartphone use on a bed. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to define the most comfortable trunk angle for smartphone use on a bed. METHODS: To study comfort and discomfort, 52 participants were asked to use the smartphone on a bed. The trunk angle of …this bed was adjusted to 6 positions from flat to upright and for each angle the comfort and discomfort was recorded. RESULTS: The results showed that the participants prefer a trunk angle range around 120 and 142 degrees. At the best trunk angle 29% of the participants felt comfort in the legs, 25% in the upper back and 16% in the shoulders. However, in this position 36% also mentioned discomfort in the lower back and 24 % in the neck. CONCLUSIONS: For smartphone use a bed is preferable which enables a trunk angle of around 120–140 degrees. For the legs this is comfortable. However, for the neck and upper back the problem of discomfort still needs attention. Show more

Keywords: Comfort, discomfort, posture, smartphone, bed

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208022

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S245-S249, 2021

Authors: Vanacore, Amalia | Lanzotti, Antonio | Percuoco, Chiara | Capasso, Agostino | Vitolo, Bonaventura

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Aircraft seating comfort has a significant impact on passenger on-board experience. Its assessment requires the adoption of well-designed strategies for data collection as well as appropriate data analysis methods in order to obtain accurate and reliable results. OBJECTIVES: This paper focuses on the assessment of aircraft seating comfort based on subjective comfort responses collected during laboratory experiments and taking into account seat features and passenger characteristics. METHODS: The subjective comfort evaluations have been analyzed using a model-based approach to investigate the relationship between overall seating comfort and specific seat/user characteristics. RESULTS: The results …show that the overall seating comfort perception is significantly influenced by the thickness of the seat pan, the backrest position (upright or reclined), the age of the passenger and the passenger perception of being comfortably supported at the lumbar region. CONCLUSIONS: The adopted model-based approach allows the analysis of subjective seating comfort data taking into account their ordinal nature as well as the dependency between evaluations provided by the same subject. Show more

Keywords: Seat comfort, laboratory experiments, ordinal regression, repeated evaluations

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208023

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S251-S255, 2021

Authors: Wang, Xuguang | Beurier, Georges | Zhao, Mingming | Obadia, Jean Marc

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Aircraft seat manufacturers are making efforts to reduce seat weight while continuously increasing seating comfort. OBJECTIVES: To verify if seats with an optimally pre-shaped foam support could improve seating comfort while reducing seat weight. METHODS: The optimally pre-shaped surface was obtained from a synthesis of 95% of individually optimized compressed seat pan surfaces of a target population. Two new seats were proposed with two different cushions, one slightly softer and the other harder. Nineteen differently sized volunteers tested the two new seats and an existing seat randomly. After an assessment of initial discomfort, participants were …instructed to watch a TV series for 50 minutes. A same questionnaire was used to assess both initial and longer-term discomfort. Contact forces and pressure distribution were analysed as well in-chair movements (ICM) during sitting. RESULTS: The two new seats exhibited lower shear, lower peak pressure and larger contact area on the seat pan as well lower number of ICM during the 50 minutes sitting. They also had lower initial overall discomfort, though significant differences between the seats were not found after the long sitting. CONCLUSIONS: Properly pre-shaped surface could be used as foam support to reduce the amount of foam while reducing seating discomfort. Show more

Keywords: Seating discomfort, airplane, pre-shaped foam support, pressure distribution, in-chair movements

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208024

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S257-S271, 2021

Authors: Yao, Xinhe | Song, Yu | Vink, Peter

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Scents may influence the perceived comfort of an environment. There are only a few studies conducted on the relationship between scent and comfort in aircraft cabin. OBJECTIVES: The goal of this research is to explore whether relationships between scents and perceived comfort can be found for passengers in an aircraft cabin. METHODS: 276 participants joined an experiment in a Boeing 737 fuselage. The participants were divided into nine groups and each joined a session for 60 minutes with the exposure to different scents. The effect of the odor was measured by a set of …questionnaires at the beginning and at the end of the session. Results of questionnaires were analyzed regarding the effects on the completion time, of the type of scents, of the intensity of the scent and on gender. RESULTS: Significant differences were found at the beginning and at the end of the experiment regarding comfort and emotion, but sometimes no relations could be established. The influence of different scents on comfort/discomfort varied and changed over time. However, in all scenarios, participant’ scores on emotion decreased. Additionally, the added scents influenced the linearity between the changes in comfort and discomfort. CONCLUSIONS: Smell could influence the perceived comfort/discomfort of aircraft passengers over time, and different types of smells have different effects on passengers. The preferences on scents are diverse, which highlights the need for personalization in aircraft cabin design. Show more

Keywords: Smell, comfort, discomfort, emotion, aircraft cabin environment

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208025

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S273-S280, 2021

Authors: Liu, Zhihui | Wang, Li | Kong, Fanlei | Huang, Xia | Tang, Zhi | He, Shi | Vink, Peter

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Many occupations require workers to stand for prolonged periods, which can cause discomfort, pain and even injures. Some supermarkets in life provide a foot pad for checkout staff to let them stand on it at work, thereby reducing standing fatigue caused by standing for a long time. The inclined platform is the same as the foot pad mentioned above. That is, the staff stepped on it and relieved standing fatigue to a certain extent. OBJECTIVE: The study aims to analyze how the standing angle affects fatigue among prolonged standing workers and tries to find an inclined platform …with a specific angle to reduce standing fatigue. METHODS: This experiment studied fatigue of the inclined platforms with different angles on prolonged standing workers, eight participants were selected to participate in the test. The plantar pressures and sEMG (Surface Electromyography) were used to collect the physiological information change of prolonged standing participants in the lower limb and waist. The visual analogue scale was used as a subjective method to measure the psychological fatigue. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The study highlights the relationship between standing angle and lower limb fatigue. The inclination of the standing platform has different effects on the participants under different time conditions. When participants stand on inclined platforms at 0°, 5° and 10°, the iEMG (Integrated Electromyography) values of the gastrointestinal muscle were not significantly different until the third sampling point (40 minutes). After that self-regulation of lower limb muscles is better when standing on an inclined platform between 5° and 10°, it has a certain effect on alleviating lower limb fatigue. This knowledge is crucial for the design of the inclined working platforms fitting the needs of prolonged standing workers. Show more

Keywords: Prolonged standing, standing angle, inclined platform, surface electromyography, lower limb fatigue

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208026

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S281-S287, 2021

Authors: Smulders, M. | Vink, P.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: (Dis)comfort research that has no information on behaviour of the participants can be considered as incomplete, as major influencing factors could be missed. For (dis)comfort research it is important to capture factors such as context, task/activity, posture, movement, (distracting) stimuli and time, as these factors have influence on the experienced (dis)comfort. Recording the behaviour allows for better evaluation of and comparison between studies, contributing to an increase of scientific knowledge on (dis)comfort.

Keywords: Context, activity, posture, movement, stimuli

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-208027

Citation: Work, vol. 68, no. s1, pp. S289-S294, 2021