Work - Volume 77, issue 4

Authors: Tseli, Elena | Monnier, Andreas | LoMartire, Riccardo | Vixner, Linda | Äng, Björn | Bohman, Tony

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: When establishing Physical Employment Standards, validity is dependent on the correct identification and characterisation of critical job tasks. OBJECTIVE: To develop and validate a standardised protocol for the identification, characterisation, and documentation of critical physical job tasks in military occupational specialities in the Swedish Armed Forces (SwAF), and propose a definition of critical physical job tasks for use in the SwAF. METHODS: A protocol was drafted with three content domains, including a preliminary definition. Protocol content validity was iteratively assessed in two consecutive stages where ten subject experts rated relevance and simplicity. A consensus panel …revised the protocol after each stage. Content validity index (CVI) was calculated as item-CVI (I-CVI) per each feature and as scale average (S-CVI/Ave) per content domain. Acceptable content validity thresholds were 0.78 and 0.90, respectively. RESULTS: The validated protocol consisted of 35 items with an I-CVI≥0.90 and≥0.80 for relevance and simplicity, respectively. The S-CVI/Ave was 0.97 for relevance and 0.98 for simplicity. The protocol was language reviewed, reorganised for easy use, and approved by the consensus panel. The final protocol includes: background and aim of the protocol, the accepted generic and critical physical job task definitions, protocol instructions, subject expert-qualifications, job task source and characteristics. CONCLUSION: A standardised protocol for identification and characterisation of critical job tasks in SwAF military occupational specialties was developed. The protocol content was rated relevant and simple by experts and will be of importance in future work establishing physical requirements in the SwAF. Show more

Keywords: Evaluation study, military personnel, physical employment standards, questionnaire, work performance

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230263

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1261-1272, 2024

Authors: Hogan, Joseph A. | Powell, Steven D. | Gribble, Hannah | Saunders, Samantha | Gunner, Frances | Fallowfield, Joanne L. | Brown, Piete E.H. | Allsopp, Adrian J.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The current in-service Royal Naval Fitness Test has two elements to test the aerobic endurance and muscular strength of Service Personnel through generic field-based tests and a short job task simulation. However, in 2017 the Royal Navy (RN) identified a requirement to update their in-service fitness test to align with international best practice. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to conduct an Objective Job Task Analysis on critical, physically demanding tasks that could be undertaken by RN sailors during sea deployments METHODS: Twenty-one training exercises were observed across a range of contexts; Type 23 …Frigates, Type 45 Destroyers and at shore-based training facilities. A total of 203 RN personnel (age 27.8±7.1 years) were observed undertaking 36 job related tasks (e.g., ‘firefighting’, ‘damage control’, ‘abandon ship’ and ‘casualty handling’). Tasks were evaluated by cardiovascular response, primary functional movements and contextual factors to aid a Military Judgement Panel in task list down-selection. RESULTS: 14 Criterion Tasks (e.g., ‘firefighting’, ‘two-person magazine stowage’ and ‘casualty handling’) were selected to progress to the next stage of the process. Five tasks were selected based on cardiovascular responses and a further nine tasks selected based on task ergonomics and other factors. CONCLUSION: This research has identified and quantified the most physically demanding, critical roles undertaken by RN sailors on sea deployments and will inform the development of the RN Physical Employment Standard. Show more

Keywords: Physical employment standards, physical demands, physical tests, task domains, physical demands, exposure analysis

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230264

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1273-1283, 2024

Authors: Kloss, Emily B. | Niederberger, Brenda A. | Givens, Andrea C. | Beck, Meghan S. | Bernards, Jake R. | Bennett, Daniel W. | Kelly, Karen R.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: During periods of high-volume vigorous exercise, United States Marine Corps recruits often experience musculoskeletal injuries. While the program of instruction (POI) for basic training is a defined training volume, the total workload of boot camp, including movements around the base, is unknown. OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to quantify the daily total workload, energy expenditure, and sleep during basic recruit training at Marine Corps Recruit Depot (MCRD) San Diego. METHODS: Eighty-four male recruits from MCRD San Diego wore wrist wearable physiological monitors to capture their complete workload (mileage from steps), energy expenditure, and sleep throughout …the 10-week boot camp. RESULTS: Marine recruits traveled an average of 11.5±3.4 miles per day (M±SD), expended 4105±823 kcal per day, and slept an average of 5 : 48±1 : 06 hours and minutes per night. While the POI designates a total of 46.3 miles of running and hiking, the actual daily average miles yielded approximately 657.6±107.2 miles over the 10-week boot camp. CONCLUSION: Recruit training requires high physical demand and time under tension due to the cumulative volume of movements around base in addition to the POI planned physical training. Show more

Keywords: Work, workload, military, inservice training, energy expenditure, sleep

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230554

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1285-1294, 2024

Authors: Tomes, Colin D. | Canetti, Elisa F.D. | Schram, Ben | Orr, Robin

Article Type: Case Report

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Police Tactical Groups (PTGs) are specialist police units tasked with rigorous physical and psychosocial duties. Consequently, selection courses (SCs) for service in these units must also be rigorous. Given the intensity of SCs, holistic monitoring for potential overstress may be beneficial. Heart Rate Variability (HRV) is one holistic stress measure that can be obtained in austere environments. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to profile HRV during a PTG SC. Six (n  = 6) qualified male police officers attempted a 36-hour PTG selection course held at an Australian state facility. METHODS: HRV was obtained from …Equivitaltrademark EQ02 + LifeMonitor bioharnesses. The selection course consisted of physically demanding events with minimal sleep (approx. 45 mins). Only one candidate completed the full selection course; whose results are reported here. RESULTS: A visual time-series of 384 consecutive 5 min HRV analyses was generated. Contextual analysis was applied to appreciate HRV changes between SC serials. HRV decline occurred during the planning of a navigation exercise and a pack march. Increases in HRV were observed throughout the pack march exercise and rest period. CONCLUSION: This case study demonstrates the potential utility for selection personnel to obtain additional insight into candidate responses to various occupational challenges throughout an SC. Information provided by HRV monitoring may support leadership decisions when evaluating personnel holistically. For example, the ability to continue occupational task execution even while experiencing potential overstress (as measured by HRV) and after food and sleep deprivation is desirable. HRV may potentially inform stakeholders regarding overstress in PTG candidates. Show more

Keywords: Biomarkers, data visualization, stress, fatigue, risk management, exercise, occupational health

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230297

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1295-1303, 2024

Authors: O’Halloran, Joseph | Tipton, Mike | Milligan, Gemma

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Offshore wind technicians (WTs) have been identified as having an occupation with high physical demands. OBJECTIVE: To characterise the physical demands of WTs, during the working day and when performing casualty rescues. METHODS: Data collection consisted of two components. Component A, 14 WTs (n  = 13 male, 1 female) were monitored over three consecutive working days. The data collected consisted of: a questionnaire; heart rate and movement data; and accelerometer data. Component B, 5 WTs (n  = 5 male) were assessed undertaking two simulated casualty evacuations. Heart rate and metabolic data were collected. RESULTS: A …working day lasted 7.5 hrs to 9 hrs, with WTs covering, on average, 4.7 km on the turbine. WTs spent 28% of their time undertaking “light activity”, 69% “moderate activity” and 3% working “vigorously”. The greatest amount of time in a day was spent working on manual handling tasks such as torque and tensioning (up to 4 hours in total). Both rescues were performed largely aerobically, with similar cardiac and metabolic demands (14.56 (4.84) mL.kg–1 .min–1 vs. 17.07 (3.54) mL.kg–1 .min–1 ). Higher RPE values were reported for the rescue from within the Hub (median (range), 13 (12–14)) compared to down the ladder (11 (7–12)), likely due to a greater requirement to manoeuvre the casualty in tight spaces. CONCLUSION: The results presented characterise the physical requirements of WTs during the working day and two casualty evacuations. These data play an important role in supporting the job task analysis for WTs working in the offshore wind industry. Show more

Keywords: Physical employment standard, minimum performance

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230270

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1305-1317, 2024

Authors: Carstairs, Greg L. | Michael, Scott W. | Groeller, Herbert | Drain, Jace R.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Militaries have historically utilised generic physical fitness tests to assess physical readiness, but there has been a recent shift to develop physical employment standards (PES) based on actual job demands. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this investigation was to characterise the physical demands of critical tasks performed by Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) personnel to inform PES development. METHODS: Job task analysis were performed for 27 RAAF trades. Criterion tasks were identified through a systematic approach involving workshops and field-observations. The identified tasks were assessed for dominant physical capacity and grouped into movement-based clusters. Psychophysiological measures …were collected from personnel performing the tasks. RESULTS: Of 87 criterion tasks, 92% were characterised as manual handling dominant. Across these 87 tasks the principal physical capacities were: muscular strength (59%), muscular endurance (52%) and cardiorespiratory endurance (39%). The most common movement clusters were Lift to Platform (44%) and Lift and Carry (38%). Lift to Platform tasks required lifting to a median height of 1.32 m (1.20 –1.65 m) and a median mass of 25.0 kg (21.0 –28.9 kg) per person. Median carry mass was 25.0 kg (22.4 –36.1 kg) per person and distance was 26.0 m (17.5 –50.0 m). Median task mean ’Vdot;O2 , HR and RPE were 1.8 L.min- 1 (1.5–2.2 L.min- 1 ), 137 b.min- 1 (120–144) and 13 (12–14). CONCLUSIONS: The high proportion of manual handling criterion tasks emphasises the importance of these activities and the underlying physical capacities for RAAF personnel. Current fitness assessments are unlikely to predict job task performance. Show more

Keywords: Physical employment standards, job task analysis, physical demands analysis, muscular strength, muscular endurance, cardiorespiratory endurance, lift, lift and carry, military

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230274

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1319-1329, 2024

Authors: Sankari, Matias | Vaara, Jani P. | Pihlainen, Kai | Ojanen, Tommi | Kyröläinen, Heikki

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Military operations in urban environments requires faster movements and therefore may place greater demands on soldier strength and anaerobic ability. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to study how physical fitness and body composition are associated with occupational test for urban combat soldiers before and after a 5-day military field exercise (MFE). METHODS: Twenty-six conscripts (age = 20±1 yrs.) volunteered, of which thirteen completed the study. Occupational performance was determined by using the newly developed Urban Combat Simulation test (UCS); which included 50-m sprinting, moving a truck tire (56 kg) 2 meters with a sledgehammer, a 12-m kettlebell carry (2×20 kg) …up the stairs with a 3-m ascent, 4-time sandbag lifts (20 kg) with obstacle crossing, and a 20-m mannequin (85 kg) drag. Aerobic and muscle fitness, as well as anaerobic capacity were measured, and, body composition was assessed with multifrequency bioimpedance analysis. RESULTS: The UCS performance correlated significantly with standing long jump performance, as well as lower and upper body maximal strength before (r = –0.56 to –0.66) and after (r = –0.59 to –0.68) MFE, and, with body mass and FFM before (r = –0.81 to –0.83) and after (r = –0.86 to –0.91) MFE. In the regression analyses, fat free mass (R2 = 0.50, p  = 0.01) and counter movement jump in combat load (R2 = 0.46, p  = 0.009) most strongly explained the UCS performance. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that muscle mass and lower body explosive force production together with maximal strength are key fitness components related to typical urban combat soldiers‘ military tasks. Physical training developing these components are recommended. Show more

Keywords: Soldier, military, readiness, fitness, task performance, physical training

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230239

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1331-1340, 2024

Authors: Poirier, Martin P. | Blacklock, Rachel | Cao, Michael | Théoret, Daniel | Frei, Leslie | Gagnon, Patrick

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: While effective apprehensions of non-compliant suspects are central to public safety, the minimal force needed to transition a suspect from standing to the ground, vital for apprehension success, has not been established. OBJECTIVE: To examine the technical-tactical behaviors of general duty police officers during simulated apprehensions and quantify the minimum force required to destabilize non-compliant suspects. METHODS: Task simulations conducted with 91 officers were analyzed to identify common grappling movements, strikes, control tactics, and changes in body posture. A separate assessment of 55 male officers aimed to determine the minimum force required for destabilization in …five body regions (wrist, forearm, shoulder, mid-chest, and mid-back). Data are presented as mean±standard deviation. RESULTS: On average, apprehensions took 7.3±3.2 seconds. While all officers used grappling movements (100%) and the majority employed control tactics (75%), strikes were seldom used (4%). Apprehensions typically began with a two-handed pull (97%; Contact Phase), 55% then attempted an arm bar takedown, followed by a two-handed cross-body pull (68%; Transition/Control Phase), and a two-handed push to the ground (19%; Ground Phase). All officers began in the upright posture, with most shifting to squat (75%), kneel (58%), or bent (45%) postures to complete the apprehension. The minimum force required to disrupt balance differed across body regions (wrist: 54±12 kg; forearm: 49±12 kg; shoulder: 42±10 kg; mid-chest: 44±11 kg; mid-back: 30±7 kg, all P  < 0.05), except between the shoulder and chest (P  = 0.19). CONCLUSION: These findings provide insights that can enhance the design and accuracy of future apprehension evaluations and inform the optimization of law enforcement physical employment standards. Show more

Keywords: Law enforcement, force, occupational health, physical fitness, physical restraint, resistance training, task performance and analysis, work performance standards

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230307

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1341-1357, 2024

Authors: Joseph, Dulla | Robert, Lockie | Robin, Orr | Ben, Schram | Elisa, Canetti

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Law enforcement (LE) applicant assessments and initial academy training vary greatly across the United States of America (USA), with 820+ academies operating across 50 different states. Rising obesity and declining physical fitness underscore the need for benchmarks of applicant physical performance. OBJECTIVE: Create a “point-in-time” descriptive profile of the performance of LE applicants and determine any differences between males, females, and age using two applicant test batteries (ATBs). METHODS: Archival data from one large USA LE academy were analysed. Applicants completed one of two ATBs; ATB1 (n  = 1674): 68.8-meter agility run (AR), 60-s push-ups, 60-s sit-ups, …60-s arm ergometer revolutions, and 2.4 km run; ATB2 (n  = 355): AR, 60-s push-ups, 60-s sit-ups, and a multistage fitness test. Data were coded for sex and age. Independent samples t -tests compared the sexes. A one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc analysis compared age groups (18– 24, 25– 29, 30– 34, 35– 39, 40 + years). RESULTS: Males outperformed females in all fitness assessments across both ATBs (p ≤0.02). The 18– 24 age group demonstrated faster run times in the AR and 2.4 km for ATB1 compared to all groups. (p ≤0.03). In ATB2, the 18– 24 age group was faster in the AR compared to all other groups except the 25– 29 age group (p ≤0.026). CONCLUSIONS: Regardless of ATB used, females and older applicants generally would benefit from specific fitness training to better prepare for academy. Older applicants may experience greater challenges in running tasks, especially those involving sprinting, which could also be impacted by qualities important for running/sprinting (i.e., maximal strength and power). Show more

Keywords: Police, academy, initial training, muscular endurance, strength, tactical

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230333

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1359-1368, 2024

Authors: Schram, Ben | Kukić, Filip | Janković, Rade | Dimitrijević, Rasa | Žigić, Goran | Orr, Robin | Koropanovski, Nenad

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Concerns are sometimes raised by police applicants undertaking physical fitness testing that they were unfamiliar with the test requirements which in turn negatively impacted their performance. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a single day physical test training session on physical fitness scores of police candidates. METHODS: The sample consisted of female police candidates (n  = 133) who attended a pre-academy training session. On the first day of pre-training, candidates’ physical fitness was measured following official assessment day protocols. Measures included maximal handgrip strength, number of push-ups in 10 sec …(PU), number of sit-ups in 30 sec (SU), standing long jump (SLJ), Abalakow jump test (AJ), 12 min Cooper running test (CT), and a motor educability test (ME). After the assessment, the overseeing UCIPS staff provided a detailed test skills briefing to candidates (e.g., common mistakes made during testing, how test performance could be improved, etc.). Immediately after the briefing, candidates performed the tests once again. Differences between results were measured using a paired samples t -test with significance set at 0.05. RESULTS: Paired sample t -tests determined significant (p  < 0.001), large (Rank-Biserial Correlation = 1.00), improvements in physical fitness scores during the second assessment following familiarisation and feedback on test performance. CONCLUSION: Pre-academy training may be effective in improving candidates’ physical fitness scores, in most tests, prior to the official assessment for the enrolment to police studies. Thus, to optimise initial candidate scores and opportunities for successful enlistment, police agencies may benefit from providing pre-assessment training. Show more

Keywords: Law enforcement officer, recruit, employment standards, police academy, exercise test, fitness testing

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230320

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1369-1375, 2024

Authors: Lockie, Robert G. | Orr, Robin M. | Montes, Fernando | Dawes, J. Jay

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Fitness tests have been previously used to predict academy graduation and highlight specific capacities to be targeted in applicants/trainees to optimise their potential for academy success. OBJECTIVE: To compare the fitness of graduated and released (did not complete academy requirements) firefighter trainees and explore using decision tree analysis to predict academy graduation via fitness tests. METHODS: Retrospective analysis was conducted on 686 trainees who completed an occupational physical ability test (OPAT): Illinois agility test; push-ups; pull-ups; leg tucks; estimated maximal aerobic capacity (VO2max ); backwards overhead 4.54-kg medicine ball throw; 10-repetition maximum deadlift; and 91.44-m …farmer’s carry. Data were recorded in raw and scaled scores (tests scored from 0–100; maximum OPAT score was 800). Trainees were split into ‘graduated’ (GRAD; n  = 576) or ‘released’ (REL; n  = 110) groups. Mann-Whitney U-tests compared between-group OPAT scores. A decision tree analysis using Chi-square automatic interaction detection was conducted, with raw and scaled scores entered into the analysis. A separate analysis was conducted with only the raw scores. RESULTS: GRAD trainees outperformed REL trainees in all OPAT events (p  < 0.001). OPAT total score was the best predictor of academy graduation (p  < 0.001), followed by the deadlift score (p  = 0.003). Estimated VO2max was the only significant raw score predictor (p  < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: GRAD trainees were fitter than the REL trainees. Fitness could predict trainees who graduated from the academy. Overall fitness (OPAT total score), muscular strength (deadlift) and aerobic capacity were important graduation predictors. Training staff could develop these fitness qualities in their trainees to potentially improve fire academy graduation rates. Show more

Keywords: Aerobic fitness, deadlift, first responder, occupational physical ability test, tactical

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230258

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1377-1389, 2024

Authors: Kelly, Karen | Niederberger, Brenda | Givens, Andrea | Bernards, Jake | Orr, Robin

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Load carriage tasks during United States Marine Corps (USMC) recruit training can cause injury. Load carriage conditioning, if optimized, can reduce injury risk. OBJECTIVE: To compare injuries sustained by USMC recruits following participation in either the Original Load Carriage (OLC) program or a Modified Load Carriage (MLC) program. METHODS: Retrospective musculoskeletal injury data were drawn from the USMC San Diego Sports Medicine injury database for recruits completing the OLC (n  = 2,363) and MLC (n  = 681) programs. Data were expressed as descriptive statistics and a population estimate of the OLC:MLC relative risk ratio (RR) was calculated. …RESULTS: The proportion of injuries sustained in the MLC cohort (n  = 268; 39% : OLC cohort, n  = 1,372 : 58%) was lower, as was the RR (0.68, 95% CI 0.61– 0.75). The leading nature of injury for both cohorts was sprains and strains (OLC n  = 396, 29%; MLC n  = 66; 25%). Stress reactions were proportionally higher in MLC (n  = 17, 6%; OLC n  = 4, 0.3%), while stress fractures were proportionately lower (MLC n  = 9, 3%; OLC n  = 114, 8%). Overuse injuries were lower in MLC (– 7%). The knee, lower leg, ankle, and foot were the top four bodily sites of injuries and the Small Unit Leadership Evaluation (SULE), Crucible, overuse-nonspecific, running, and conditioning hikes were within the top five most common events causing injury. The prevalence rates of moderate severity injury were similar (MLC = 23%; OLC = 24%), although MLC presented both a higher proportion and prevalence of severe injuries (MLC = 6%; OLC = 3%, respectively). CONCLUSION: A periodized load carriage program concurrently increased exposure to load carriage hikes while reducing injuries both during the load carriage hikes and overall. Show more

Keywords: Musculoskeletal injury, boot-camp, injury prevention, progressive overload, military training

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230569

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1391-1399, 2024

Authors: Lockie, Robert G. | Orr, Robin M. | Kennedy, Kelly | Dawes, J. Jay

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: In 2020, a police department in the south-eastern USA introduced a Job-Related Task Assessment (JTA). The JTA included running, climbing, crawling, balance, direction changes, stair climbing, dragging, pushing, and simulated controlling of a struggling subject and needed to be completed by applicants in 6 : 57 min:s. It is not known whether introducing the JTA in the hiring process affected the health and fitness of hired recruits. OBJECTIVE: To compare the health and fitness of recruits hired prior to, and following, the JTA introduction. METHODS: Analysis was conducted on recruit data split into academy training year: 2016 …(n  = 91), 2017 (n  = 129), 2018 (n  = 167), 2019 (n  = 242), and 2020 (n  = 37). The 2020 group was hired after the JTA introduction and included one academy class. The following were recorded for all recruits: age, height, body mass, and body mass index; systolic and diastolic blood pressure (BP); sit-and-reach; grip strength; push-ups; sit-ups; 2.4-km run; and a physical ability test (PAT). A univariate ANOVA, with sex and age as covariates and Bonferroni post hoc, determined between-year differences. RESULTS: The recruits from 2020 were significantly lighter than 2018 recruits (p  < 0.031), had higher systolic and diastolic BP than recruits from 2016–2018 (p ≤0.006), completed the 2.4-km run faster than recruits from all years (p  < 0.001), and completed the PAT faster than the 2016 and 2019 (p  = 0.006–0.007) recruits. CONCLUSION: The JTA introduction led to the selection of recruits with lower body mass, and better aerobic (2.4-km run) and job-specific fitness (PAT). However, 2020 recruits also had higher BP which should be monitored. Show more

Keywords: Aerobic fitness, blood pressure, law enforcement, physical ability test, tactical

DOI: 10.3233/WOR-230245

Citation: Work, vol. 77, no. 4, pp. 1401-1413, 2024