Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience - Volume 27, issue 5

Authors: Jäncke, Lutz

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: In this review I summarize and discuss reported findings of structural and functional plasticity in the intact human brain. Methods: The main focus is placed on research that uses musicians as a model to study brain plasticity. I summarize therefore mostly studies dealing with musicians or with the effect of music practice. In the first section, structural plasticity is described on the basis of modern neuroanatomical studies using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques. In the second part, …emphasis is given to studies reporting functional plasticity on the basis of changed neurophysiological activation patterns. These studies are discussed in the context of two approaches employed to study plasticity in the human brain: the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches. Results: The reviewed studies altogether indicate that experience can shape brain anatomy and brain physiology. Brain plasticity as demonstrated here is related to changed grey and white mater densities (and volumes) but also to changed activation patterns in the brain areas involved in controlling the expertise task. Conclusions: Taken together, all studies support the view that the human brain is much more plastic than had been anticipated 20 years ago Show more

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-2009-0519

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 521-538, 2009

Authors: Blanchard-Fields, Fredda

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: Despite decline in basic cognitive mechanisms, aging adults may also possess abilities that allow them to function quite effectively, particularly when cognition is examined in a socio-emotional context. In this article, I highlight the importance of the functional dynamics or the ability to effectively adapt to the demands and opportunities that individuals are confronted with on an everyday basis. Methods: This overview takes into consideration how life experiences, social interactions, beliefs, and emotions …influence motivational goals for processing information in daily life. I present an integrative representation of my empirical work and theorizing on the impact of socio-emotional contextual factors in older adulthood by identifying developmental mechanisms and contexts that determine when older adults' everyday problem solving and emotion regulation is optimal or adaptive and when it is not. Results: Older adults display flexibility in problem solving and emotion regulation strategy use as well as a decrease in the amount of resources necessary to maintain or regain emotional well-being, while performing well at other tasks. Conclusions: We suggest that growing older has the adaptive potential to effectively solve problems, regulate emotions, and reduce the cognitive costs of emotion regulation, further corroborating findings of a positive and flexible developmental trajectory for emotional control with increasing age. Show more

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-2009-0516

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 539-550, 2009

Authors: Labouvie-Vief, Gisela

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: Changes in emotion-cognition relationships in later life comprise a pattern of both vulnerabilities and strengths. To integrate this pattern of diversity, I propose a neo-Piagetian extension of the concepts of equilibrium and disequilibrium processes to the relationship beyond cognition to encompass emotional activation and arousal, and beyond youth to the full life span. Content: Beginning with a simple, Cannon-type equilibrium based on the response to increasing deviation from ideal end states of …correcting through tension reduction, a more complex model is outlined that additionally uses tension amplification aimed at enlargement of the range over which stability is maintained, i.e., permits processes of developmental progression. Parallel to cognitive development, emotional development is described as the emergence of more complex cognitive-affective structures out of original automatic, biologically based ones. In that process, tension thresholds are raised, and the functional range over which equilibrium can be maintained is widened, as higher-order representations become part of the regulatory network. These progressive movements provide well automated emotion regulation whose effectiveness increases well into middle and late life. Conclusions: In contrast to development, aging is ultimately characterized by a lowering of tension thresholds similar to developmental regression. However, as in the purely intellectual realm, that process is offset by the previous automatization and crystallization of cognitive-affective schemas becomes evident only as a result of increasing constraints on fluid capacities, as in advancing age and/or high load of cognitive effort and/or emotional activation. Show more

Keywords: Adult development, life-span development, emotional development, emotion regulation, equilibrium

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-2009-0512

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 551-565, 2009

Authors: Marcar, Valentine L.

Article Type: Research Article

Abstract: Purpose: This paper will examine different neurocognitive theories which conclude that the brain is able to restore or redress lost or damaged processing systems by reorganising remaining neuronal resources. Method: The blood oxygenation level dependent or BOLD-signal is the most frequently used method for imaging brain activity in healthy, young adults, children, the elderly, or subjects with a neurodegenerative condition. The BOLD-signal reflects the balance between oxygen metabolism and vascular blood supply. The effect …of neuronal discharge activity and neuronal recruitment on oxygen metabolism and vascular blood supply will be described. Result: Maturation, senescence or degenerative illness alter the balance of oxygen metabolism and vascular blood supply on a regional level. This changes the ability to detect brain activity using the BOLD-signal and accounts for the activation pattern observed in the young, the old and the ill. Conclusions: The change in activation pattern observed in the young, the old and the ill is not the result of a compensatory mechanism but the result of a disparity in the neuronal process which can not be compensated for. Show more

Keywords: BOLD signal, recruitment, action potential, aging, cognition

DOI: 10.3233/RNN-2009-0518

Citation: Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 567-578, 2009