Affiliations: Department of Biological and Clinical Psychology, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
Note: [] Corresponding author: Alfons O. Hamm, Department of Biological and Clinical Psychology, University of Greifswald, Franz-Mehring-Street 47, 17487 Greifswald, Germany. Tel.: +49 3834 863715; Fax: +49 3834 863763; E-mail: hamm@uni-greifswald.de
Abstract: Unexpected, recurrent panic attacks and anxious apprehension are two distinct emotional phenomena that constitute the core symptoms for diagnosing panic disorder. Taking a neuroscience perspective the current review paper presents both epidemiological and experimental psychophysiological evidence suggesting that panic attacks can be conceptualized as an unconditioned circa defense response pattern to intense internal threat stimuli, characterized by strong autonomic surge and escape behavior and abnormal plastic changes of the brain. Anxious apprehension develops after the experience of such severe panic attacks as conditioned responses to mild body symptoms. Theoretically these conditioned fear responses can be considered as post-encounter defense characterized by increased selective attention, increased threat appraisal and defensive freezing and startle potentiation evidencing altered brain circuits evoked by mild body symptoms. Agoraphobic avoidance starts very early during the defensive cascade and can be conceived as motivated behavior driven by the incentive to be in a safe context that is under control of the individual.
