Attitudes toward people with physical disabilities: An examination of social context, discipline, disability type, and demographics

2.1Disability statistics

The American Community Survey (ACS) estimates the overall rate of people with disabilities in the U.S. in 2016 to be 12.8% (Institute on Disability, 2018). Among working age Americans (ages 18– 64), the rate of disability in 2016 was 10.6%. The rate of disability among this 18– 64 year old population can be further broken down by disability type: 2.0% of the total 18– 64 year old population has a hearing disability, 2.0% have a visual disability, and 5.1% have an ambulatory disability. According to the 2016 data, the rate of employment among individuals with a hearing disability was 51.7%, the employment rate among individuals with a vision disability was 43.5%, and the employment rate among individuals with an ambulatory disability was only 24.8%. This breaks down to 2,023,945 out of 3,969,691 individuals with a hearing disability (51%), 1,583,184 out of 3,788,786 individuals with a visual disability (41.8%), and 2,435,850 out of 10,092,267 individuals with an am-bulatory disability (24.1%) (Institute on Disability, 2018).

The European Union (EU) is home to 508 million inhabitants, of which approximately 70 million people (13.78% of the total EU population) have a disability (Disability Statistics, 2017; Europa, 2016). Among those 70 million, 42 million fall between the ages of 16– 54. This group represents 12.8% of the population (Disability Statistics, 2017). In the EU, PWDs comprise 16% of the workforce (Campbell, 2010). The unemployment rate for PWDs is two to three times higher than the average unemployment rate (Campbell, 2010). The unemployment rate in the EU fell from 10.5% in 2015 to 9.6% in 2016 (States News Service, 2016). During that same period, the number of unemployed people in Austria dropped only by 0.2%.

There are 653,000 people between the ages of 16 and 54 that have a disability in Austria, representing 11.5% of its population (Disability Statistics, 2017). According to the Austrian National Council of Persons with Disabilities, PWDs account for 15.03% of the country’s unemployed population (Austrian National Council, 2010). Companies with more than 25 employees are required by law to employ one benefitted, registered person with a disability for every 25 employees hired. Research has shown that two-thirds of companies choose to accept a fine rather than adhere to the employment obligation (Austrian National Council, 2010). If a public or private company does not meet the 4% quota rate, it will be subject to an equalization levy of approximately 238 euros per month (Cuppage, 2013).

2.2Social context

Globally, it has been found that people with disabilities are 2.5 times less likely to find employment than persons without disabilities (Cuppage, 2013). These startling statistics stress the need to research the ways in which people view PWDs in the workplace. Countries around the world are trying to raise the numbers through anti-discrimination laws and the implementation of hiring quotas. Austria, France, and Germany already have laws in place.

Hergenrather and Rhodes (2007) evaluated attitudes of undergraduate students in the United States and found that they have more positive attitudes to-ward PWDs in the workplace than in a dating or mar-riage context. This suggests that attitudes toward PWDs are both multidimensional and influenced by social context. They concluded that work relationships are less intimate than dating or marriage, and as such are viewed more positively.

Grand et al. (1982) completed a study using a group of non-disabled adults from Northeastern Uni-versity and tested their attitudes toward PWDs in relation to situational context. The participants sho-wed significantly higher acceptance on the work scales compared with the dating or marriage scales. Two years later, Strohmer and colleagues (1984) conducted a similar study on faculty and staff from Northeastern University. The results were re-con-firmed: when measuring attitudes toward PWDs, the highest acceptance rates were found on the work scale, as opposed to dating and marriage scales.

Gordon and colleagues (1990) also studied attitu-des toward PWDs by testing a group of 259 univer-sity students studying occupational therapy, physical therapy, nursing, medicine, and clinical psychology. They found that attitudes vary depending on disability, context, and interaction (Gordon et al., 1990). It was also noted that the combination of disability and context contributes to attitudes that mirror social stigma, social distance, and the way PWDs are negatively viewed. The highest acceptance rate for the student group was found in the work subscale. In this way, the results produced were similar to those from Strohmer et al.’s (1984) research. Gordon et al. proposed that social relationships with people with disabilities in a work setting are more acceptable than more intimate relationships found in dating and marriage (Gordon et al., 1990). Following this literature, we predict that participants in our study will demonstrate more positive attitudes toward PWPDs in the work context than the marriage and dating context (H1).

2.3Disciplines

Bean and Hedgpeth (2014) researched a group of social work students from the United States during the last semester of their studies. Results indicated that social work education (which included readiness to work with PWDs) had an impact on social discrimination toward PWDs. They proposed that students who felt their education helped them be more knowledgeable and confident when working with PWDs exhibited a decreased social discrimination toward them (Bean & Hedgpeth, 2014).

Horner-Johnson et al. (2002) focused their experiment on attitudes of Japanese students toward people with intellectual disability. Results indicated that students studying social work and psychology had more positive attitudes toward people with intellectual dis-ability than students studying physical science, economics, engineering, and other unspecified studies. Students who had an interest in working with people with an intellectual disability in future careers also had more positive attitudes.

Stachura and Garven (2007) completed an experiment in the United Kingdom that evaluated students in physiotherapy and occupational therapy programs. Results showed that initially physiotherapy students’ attitudes were more negative than occupational therapy students, but that over the course of their studies those attitudes became more positive. The occupati-onal students, on the other hand, showed little change in attitude from the beginning to end of their studies. Overall, both student programs proved to have a positive effect on attitudes toward PWDs.

A study conducted by Luck (2011) tested college students studying sociology and psychology. Participants were surveyed about their attitudes toward various disabilities, including intellectual, developmental, learning, and physical. Results showed that social science students were more compassionate than other areas of study with regard to PWDs (Luck, 2011). Therefore, we predict that social work stud-ents will demonstrate more positive attitudes toward PWPDs than hospitality/tourism and business administration students in our study (H2).

2.4Gender

Hergenrather and Rhodes (2007) evaluated attitudes of undergraduate students toward specific dis-abilities (loss of a limb, visual impairment, cerebral palsy, and epilepsy) in social situations, including working, dating, and marriage. Results showed that that both male and female college students had positive attitudes toward PWDs regarding the social contexts they tested; however, female students were found to be more positive than males. Tervo et al. (2002) surveyed first-year medical students in the United States and Canada and also found that female medical students had more positive attitudes than male students. Similarly, Perry and colleagues (2008) researched attitudes of undergraduate students in a recreation and leisure program. They found that fem-ales were likely to have higher and more positive attitudes toward PWDs than men. They point out that both genders who fill upper-level administration positions will have the power to make executive decisions that could impact the lives of many people with disabilities (Perry et al., 2008).

A study conducted by Luck (2011) tested 100 U.S. college students who were registered in a sociology or psychology course. The participants were surveyed in order to learn more about their attitudes toward intellectual, developmental, learning, and physical dis-abilities. Results showed that females were more compassionate than males. In another cross-cultural study, Chen, Brodwin, Cardoso, and Chan (2002) examined the attitudes of a sample of American, Taiwanese, and Singaporean college students toward PWDs in the social contexts of dating and marriage. They found significant differences in the attitudes displayed by Asian and American students in both contexts, with American females consistently displaying the most positive attitudes toward PWDs. Based on this prior work, we predict that female participants in our study will demonstrate more positive attitudes toward PWPDs than male participants (H3).

2.5Disability education

Daruwalla and Darcy (2005) researched the effectiveness of disability awareness training and whether it could change students’ attitudes toward PWDs. Participants included a sample of hospitality and tourism students from Australia. Results showed that intervention programs that included a lecture, video, and contact with people with disabilities positively changed student attitudes toward PWDs. The effects were longer lasting when the intervention included direct contact with PWDs. They also found that second-year students tended to have a longer lasting change in attitude compared to first-year students due to the higher level of education and experience. However, they found that personal attitudes reverted to more negative levels after one month. These results show how important it is for education regarding PWDs to be reinforced over time. Training on a more frequent basis would increase exposure and ultim-ately improve attitudes more fully. Their findings stress the need for hospitality/tourism and other academic programs to provide more training programs to students to ensure positive attitudes toward PWDs.

Bizjak and colleagues (2011) researched undergraduate tourism programs in 12 European countries (including Austria) to see if they included disability studies courses. They found that none of the tourism programs had courses featuring training regarding PWDs and that disability awareness training yielded more positive attitudes toward PWDs. This suggests that raising disability awareness through appropriate curriculum development can influence attitudes toward PWDs (Bizjak et al., 2011).

Tervo et al. (2002) surveyed first-year medical students in the United States and Canada and found that students from both countries had similar attitudes toward PWDs. Background in disability was found to play a role in influencing attitudes. This finding prompted them to suggest that educational experiences and interventions could promote more positive awareness of PWDs. Role models displaying positive attitudes toward PWDs might also play a valuable role in adjusting attitudes.

A cross-sectional survey of 2,299 occupational and physiotherapy students was completed in the United Kingdom (Stachura & Garven, 2007). Students were tested at the beginning and end of their studies to see if curricular and non-curricular activities played a role in attitudes toward PWDs. Results showed that curriculum alone was enough (without extracurricular activities) to have a positive impact on attitudes.

An experiment completed by Luck (2011) proved that education and exposure to disabilities is key to generating positive attitudes regarding PWDs. This research supports the implementation of better educational programs. Luck (2011) cites the U.S. Census, which predicts disabilities will rise by seven percent by 2030. These statistics show the importance of disability awareness in the future. With regard to our study, we predict that participants who took a course that addressed disability issues will have more positive attitudes toward PWPDs than participants who did not (H4).

2.6Frequency of contact

Research suggests that frequency of contact with PWDs affects personal attitudes. Luck (2011) found that people who had personal experience with disability were more compassionate than those without such experience. Luck concluded that personal experience and education affect both attitudes and compassion levels with regard to PWDs.

Darcy and Daruwalla (1999) studied employees from a government tourism organization in Australia who were taking part in disability awareness training. Individual attitudes toward PWDs were measured before and after the training. Results showed that employees who had contact with a person with a dis-ability during training had a longer lasting positive change in attitude. This could be due to the fact that the staff had an opportunity to learn more about PWDs firsthand. These findings have implications for the tourism management field. Intervention programs that include contact with a PWD will be more effective in changing personal attitudes toward PWDs, and allow staff to provide better personal one-on-one service.

Several studies found that more direct contact with PWDs (this included having a family member with a disability and other social interactions with PWDs) allowed for more positive attitudes and less stereotyping (Kalargyrou et al., 2018a, 2020; Stachura & Garven; 2007). Also, work experience with a colleague who has a disability proved to have a positive effect on students’ attitudes. Following this previous research, we propose: 1) Students who have had more frequent contact in the workplace with PWDs will demonstrate more positive attitudes toward PWPDs (H5a); 2) Students who have a family member or friend with a disability will demonstrate more positive attitudes toward PWPDs (H5b); 3) Students who have been served by PWDs will demonstrate more positive attitudes toward PWPDs (H5c).

2.7Disability type

Previous research supports the notion that individual attitudes toward PWDs vary across different disability types. A study by Hughes et al. (1999), for example, showed that adolescents hold stronger negative attitudes toward individuals with impaired language and social skills compared to individuals with physical impairments. Similar findings were reported by Nowicki (2006); Brown et al. (2011); and Barr and Bracchitta (2015). In their comprehensive literature review of 48 articles regarding the factors affecting acceptance of PWDs in the workplace, Vornholt, Uitdewilligen, and Nijhuis (2013) found three categories of influential variables: characteristics of coworkers, characteristics of the employers/organization, and characteristics of the individual with a disability. One of the most prominent variables in this third category was disability type. Another literature review conducted by Ju, Roberts, and Zhang (2013) also reached the conclusion that attitudes toward PWDs vary for different disability types.

In a workplace context, Andersson and colleagues (2015) conducted a vignette study in Sweden with a total of 212 employers taking part. One of the main findings from this study was the fact that employer attitudes toward hiring an individual with a disability depend significantly on the type of disability the individual has. McLaughlin et al. (2004) conducted a study with more than 600 participants which explored the factors impacting individual attitudes toward PWDs. The authors found that disability type had a significant impact on an individual’s acceptance of a coworker with a disability. Similarly, Zissi et al. (2007) examined the attitudes of Greek employers toward hiring PWDs and it was found that employers’ opinions differed greatly based on disability type. In particular, the employers tended to believe that blindness made it especially difficult to hire someone, even more so than other types of disabilities such as diabetes, thalassemia, or renal inefficiency.

In a personal context, Miller and colleagues (2009) examined the willingness of a sample of primarily female Hispanic students to engage in personal relationships with PWDs. It was found that both disability type and severity had significant impacts on the willingness of respondents to have a relationship with PWDs. Additionally, the results indicated that respondents were most willing to engage in friendships or acquaintanceships with PWDs, while they were less willing to engage in dating relationships and even less willing to engage in marriage relationships with PWDs.

In a service context studies found that individuals who received service from a service industry employee with a physical disability were significantly more likely to stereotype the employee and perceive a decreased level of service quality when the employee was visually impaired (Kalargyrou et al., 2018a; Kalargyrou et al., 2020). Based on this literature, we predict that attitudes toward people with physical disabilities will vary significantly in relation to different disability types in our study (H6).

3.1Instrument

To measure the influence of the social context on attitudes toward PWPDs, the present study used a self-report attitudinal survey. Specifically, it used the Disability Social Relationship Scale (DSR), which measured three social contexts (workplace, dating, and marriage) using six questions for each context (Hergenrather & Rhodes, 2007; Strohmer et al., 1984). Each question clearly indicated a specific disability group and social situation (Strohmer et al., 1984). Responses were measured on a 5-point Likert Scale with a range of “strongly disagree,” “disagree,” “neither agree nor disagree,” “agree,” and “strongly agree.”

Hergenrather and Rhodes (2007) have thoroughly evaluated the validity and reliability of the DSR as a survey instrument. They establish the validity of the DSR by conducting factor analyses for each of the three contextual subscales and finding each to be in alignment with the overall dimensionality of the DSR. To assess the reliability of the DSR, we used two statistical measures to estimate tau-equivalent reliability and internal consistency. The first of these measures, known as Cronbach’s alpha, was reported as 0.89 (excellent) for the overall scale, 0.92 (excellent) for the Dating subscale, 0.83 (good) for the Marriage subscale, and 0.81 (good) for the Work subscale. The second measure, called the Spearman-Brown split-half corrected correlation, was found to be 0.89. Together, these two results indicate a satisfactory level of reliability in the DSR. More recently, a 2018 study by Ayse et al. utilized a Turkish translation of the generalized Disability Social Relationship Scale in their examination of undergraduate student attitudes toward individuals with disabilities. As part of their analysis, the authors assessed the reliability of the DSR using Cronbach’s alpha, which for the overall DSR was 0.81 (a high level of reliability), and for each of the three contextual subscales the Cronbach’s alpha fell between 0.61 and 0.64 (an acceptable level of reliability). Thus, the authors conclude that the generalized DSR has a strong-acceptable reliability level.

Three disability types— amputation (see Append-ix), deafness/hardness of hearing, and blindness/vi-sual impairment— were used to test the attitudes using the three social contexts. The three disability types used in these scales were selected to include a relative representation of different degrees of functional impairment and social meanings. Items on each scale were presented in a random order to elimin-ate order effects. The questionnaire also consisted of questions measuring frequency of contact with PWPDs in different contexts, knowledge of disabi-lity-related issues (see Appendix), and other demographics.

3.2Sample

The DSR was completed by 395 undergraduate students from two public universities in Austria and the final usable questionnaires totaled 390. In some cases, respondents did not answer a question and thus different sample sizes are reported; however, in all cases a percentage is offered. Students majored in tourism/hospitality management, management, and social work and the programs they attended were in English.

3.3Data analysis

The study employed the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). A number of different statistical techniques were utilized throughout this study. To evaluate research hypotheses H1 and H6, pairwise t-tests were employed. To evaluate research hypotheses H3 and H4, independent-samples t-tests were conducted. To evaluate research hypotheses H2 and H5a-c, ANOVA (analysis of variance) was utilized. In these cases, once the ANOVA F-statistic was assessed for overall statistical significance, a series of post-hoc pairwise comparison tests were employed using Tukey’s Honest Significant Difference approach.