Precarious employment, precarious life? A qualitative study exploring the perspective of temporary agency workers and their households

1.1Temporary agency work in Belgium

In 2018, in Belgium, a daily average of 3.01% of the workforce was employed by temporary work agencies [19]. This only compels a small proportion of the workforce, but the share of temporary agency work is on the increase, and among the highest in Europe [19, 20]. Some groups are overrepresented in temporary agency work: i.e. male, young, blue-collar and lower educated workers and immigrants [19, 21].

In Belgium, the temporary agency sector is strongly regulated. Only licensed agencies are permitted to operate. Moreover, temporary agency work is allowed only in specific situations. Contracts are of limited duration in all cases (usually daily, weekly or monthly). In addition, temporary agency workers are entitled to the same wage, benefits and social protection (e.g. end-of-year-bonus, holiday pay, paid legal holidays, paid sick days, unemployment benefits and pension accrual) than permanent workers performing the same job in the client-company. Temporary agency workers additionally qualify for work-life-balance-related rights, such as child allowance, maternity/paternity leave, parental leave and brief leave of absence (leave permitted due to circumstances such as a sick child) [22].

1.2Precarious employment and the life course

Chan and Tweedie [23] have shown how precarious employment is challenging the ability of young workers to progress through their life course and how it affects individual capacities to make long-term commitments and decisions, as insecurity delays life decisions [23]. Also precarious employment conditions of academic researchers heavily affect the workers’ ability to plan for their futures [24]. Leaving the parental home is a first transition that is affected. Stone et al. [25] found that economic insecurity, defined by unemployment, working in temporary or part-time work, or being economically inactive, is associated with prolonged living in the parental home [25]. Moreover, employees on temporary contracts are often refused a mortgage [6]. Previous research has also documented a negative association of non-standard employment with union formation and creating stable couple relationships [24, 26, 27]. A possible reason is situated in the fact that for most people long-term commitments such as marriage require some job stability, financial security or realistic future career prospects [27, 28].

In addition, an instable employment status and perceived job insecurity negatively affect fertility [18, 24, 29–32]. According to Laß [18], temporary agency work relates to delayed first childbirth, especially when the female partner is in that situation [18, 31, 33]. Also, women with temporary contracts are less likely to give birth to a second child [34]. The impact of precarious employment on key life decisions like parenthood is not solely attributable to employment conditions; additionally, the institutional context is of importance [23]. Fertility rates for precarious workers vary across countries and social groups, suggesting that the life course of precarious workers is influenced by broader social, family and housing policies [23]. Additionally, also cultural values and social norms, such as gender roles play a role [28]. In countries where childcare systems and parental benefits are strongly oriented towards the needs of permanent workers, families with precarious positions lack adequate access [31]. Moreover, childbearing can worsen the future employability of women who already find themselves in vulnerable labour market positions [31, 35]. The above findings are in line with the ‘new household economics’ theory of Becker [36]: a rational response to an uncertain labour market position is to work longer and harder to reduce job insecurity, while childbearing becomes subordinate to these employment-related goals [28].

Finally, precarious employment can influence the further career of employees. Some temporary agency workers in the study of Bosmans [6] complained that they are stigmatised as unreliable or lazy workers, or as workers who are unable to keep stable employment, preventing them from being contracted in permanent employment. On the contrary, also some positive effects regarding career opportunities, are found in the literature. Some studies highlight that temporary agency work provides workers with control over their career. Experienced professionals in the study by Kirkpatrick and Hoque [37] reported that they use agency employment to enhance their upward mobility. It provides them with skills and experiences perceived as useful for obtaining promotion [37].

1.3Precarious employment and family and social life

Pugh [38] paints a bleak picture, arguing that insecurity is affecting family and social life (in the USA) in a broad way. She argues that – faced with insecurity both at work and at home – people construct stronger walls between the two. They expect little from their jobs, blame themselves when it turns out bad in their employment career and place nearly all of their expectations for fulfilling connections on their intimate relationships with friends and family. When these yearnings do not meet their expectations, despair, sorrow and betrayal can grow [38]. The research of Lewchuk [30] suggests that precarious employment is associated with increased tensions and anxiety in households. One of the possible factors are non-standard working hours. Unpredictable, irregular schedules and less schedule control produce greater disruption to family life; can increase the risk of divorce; are related to interferences with non-work activities and perceived work-life conflict and have negative effects on the capacity to organise family life effectively [32, 35, 39, 41]. Besides, the scheduling of participants’ job searching or career-building activities can interfere with family time [42]. Another aspect is (financial) instability. There is quite some evidence for precarious employment to negatively affect fulfilling household activities and family dynamics, and to contribute to relationship difficulties and even partnership dissolution [18, 23, 32, 42]. Laß [18] found evidence for a cumulative disadvantage: a situation in which both partners experience employment insecurity is particularly detrimental. In contrast to most research on precarious employment, positive experiences such as flexibility, freedom and control over time, were reported as advantages of flexible work in some other studies [6, 43].

Precarious employment also causes challenges for raising children [23, 32, 42]. Economic insecurity may limit children’s extracurricular activities, leading to feelings of guilt among precariously employed parents [32, 42]. The same holds for the inability to fulfil dual roles as parents and workers, because of irregular working hours [42]. According to Craig and Powell [44], parents who work non-standard hours spend significantly more time in paid work and have less time for housework and childcare than those who work standard hours. Non-standard work schedules seem to resort more impact on mothers than on fathers, even in the case when it is the father who holds the non-standard job. In such cases it are often the mothers who do more housework and routine childcare [44]. Finally, also men working in precarious employment are often disadvantaged if they want to take care of their children, since legislation denies their right to use parental leave or denies its exercisability [45].

Regarding social life, previous research demonstrates that precarious employment is related to social isolation [6, 30, 32, 42]. Moreover, not having a permanent workplace makes it more difficult to form workplace-based friendships [30]. Additionally, irregular working hours, split shifts and short-notice work schedule changes are socially disruptive [39, 40, 46].

2.1Sample and recruitment

Dutch-speaking Belgian temporary agency workers and their household members were sampled. The household could include the temporary agency worker and all other household members living in the same house. The researcher always asked the temporary agency worker whether it was possible to include other household members in the interview. When this was not possible or not preferred, only the temporary agency worker was interviewed. Other criteria, namely socio-demographic characteristics (household composition, sex, age, educational level, occupational class) and whether or not they were in temporary agency work voluntarily (whether the employees prefer their status as a temporary agency worker above another employment situation, such as a permanent contract), were considered to ensure diversity in the sample. The included respondents’ experience with temporary agency work varied from a couple of months to many years.

The participants were selected with the help of the Christian (ACV) and Socialist (ABVV) trade unions¹. Advertisements about the study were distributed on social media and on their websites. In addition, personal e-mails were sent to temporary agency workers who were trade union members. Potential participants were asked to complete their contact details in an online form of which the content could only be retrieved by the researcher, or to contact the researcher by phone or e-mail. In addition, recruitment was done by means of word of mouth/snowball sampling. In total, 15 temporary agency workers and 6 other household members were recruited for an interview (end of 2019, beginning of 2020). Some were interviewed at the beginning of the COVID-19-crisis, but specific issues related to the crisis were not considered in this study. The characteristics of the 21 interviewees are presented in Table 1.

2.2Procedures and analysis

Temporary agency workers (and their household members) were interviewed about their experiences related to precarious employment and the ways this interrelated with their life course, family and social life – and that of their household members. The in-depth interviews were semi-structured. The main topics of the interview-guide were the following: overview of the life course and working career and its influence on various transitions in life such as education, cohabitation, marriage, having children; how the employment position impacts their family life; and how the employment position impacts their social life. However, given the scarcity of qualitative data on this topic, an inductive approach was followed partly to allow research findings to emerge from the raw data [49, 50]. The interviews took place at the location that was most convenient for the interviewee(s) (e.g. interviewees’ home, university buildings, virtually).

The interviews were recorded, transcribed and coded with Nvivo^TM software. The data were coded thematically [49, 50]. After the interviews were read through, significant statements were detected and any patterns observed were sorted into codes [49, 50]. Codes were either developed deductively from past theory or inductively from the data. Afterwards codes were reviewed to develop an organised set of codes [49, 50]. The analysis was iterative, allowing the coding tree to evolve throughout the data collection and analysing process. After the codes were identified, the focus was directed towards code-integrity and links between codes were sought [49, 50]. To end, the results were integrated into an in-depth description of the phenomenon [48]. While analysing the data, the feelings of the participants and the meanings given to experiences got much attention, in line with the phenomenological approach [48]. Pseudonyms were used to protect participants’ identity.

3.1Hindering or facilitating the life course

Because one’s employment situation is one of the most important factors giving stability in a person’s life, many important life choices and events are conditionally depending on the employment situation. In this paragraph we overview several factors regarding the life course that were influenced by the employment situation of the respondents.

Access to financial resources and family transitions. A first example comes from Chantal and Ron. They wanted to get a loan for the renovation of their house, but the banks refused due to the financially instable position of Chantal. Dirk and his family testified that their car is 14 years old and probably needs to be replaced soon. However, due to Dirk’s instable employment situation, they will not get a loan. In addition, it would be very hard to go to work without a car. In Jessica’s and Tom’s life, many important decisions were postponed because of financial insecurity: the renovation of their house, their marriage and having a second child, since they waited until Jessica would have a more stable contract (she recently is given a contract of limited duration). An instable employment position and financial insecurity are mentioned as the most important obstacles.

For Alice and her former partner, Alice’s insecure labour market position made them decide to postpone to have a child, and was later – from Alice’s side – even a barrier to stop this relationship that has not been going well for a long time.

Affecting the choices of other household members. The instable employment situation of one household member can also impact the employment-related choices of other household members. Tom wanted to change jobs while Jessica was a temporary agency worker. They decided together not to do this out of fear of ending up both in an instable employment situation. Another impact on life choices of family members is put forward by Jana. By being confronted with her dad’s disadvantaged situation as a temporary agency worker, Jana feels extra motivated to obtain a good university degree to be able to get a good job later in life.

Temporary agency jobs as career boost/orientation. Employment situations that are often labelled as precarious, such as temporary agency work, can also facilitate the career of some individuals. Olivier, for example, first searched for a job that fits his diplomas and interests. Soon he realized that he lacked experience for his ideal job. Therefore, he started to search for a temporary job through an agency. He is now happy with his current agency-job, but considers it as a temporary strategic choice that allows him to gain experience and to build his career. After some time, he assumes his profile will be better fitting for the job of his dreams.

Similarly, for Alex, temporary agency work was a quick stepping stone into the labour market. It enabled him to rent a house with his friends instead of living with his parents again after he graduated.

Other interviewees who already had had different jobs used temporary agency work to explore what they want. Greta felt bad in one of her previous permanent jobs and suffered from a depression. She used temporary agency work to get her career back on track. Doing different jobs through an agency enables her to get to know the workplace and the colleagues, so she can decide whether she would consider to work as a permanent worker again in one of the companies.

Likewise, Zana used temporary agency work to gain experience and to check-out some work places to eventually find a place where she wants to stay. Both Zana and Greta have high levels of market power: they possess desired skills putting them in an advantaged position. Both have a partner who works, which is an additional buffer against financial insecurity.

Another positive story is the one of Sandy. Sandy worked as an administrative worker for years but she wanted a career switch. She decided to go back to school and is currently obtaining her bachelor’s degree. Because she needs the financial means, she decided to combine studying with working. Therefore, she chose to work as an administrative worker through a temporary employment agency. Temporary, part-time jobs are perfect in combination with her studies. Her working hours are set in consultation with her employers to combine them with the class hours. When she graduates, she will search for another kind of job based on her new degree. Temporary agency work enabled her to give her life a new twist.

3.2Daily life and household-planning

Not only big life events may be affected by precarious employment. Many interviewees additionally testified that job changes and job insecurity impacted their daily life and short-term planning.

Appointments for private matters. A first issue is raised by Tina. She testified that even a simple appointment with a medical doctor is difficult because of temporary agency work:

Raising children and childcare. A second problem is related to children. Jessica, who was pregnant at the time of the interview, did not know whether she would get a new contract when she wanted to return to work after her maternity leave. The related insecurity resulted in worries and practical problems related to childcare. It was impossible for her to plan her need for childcare much in front, while the waiting lists are long. As a consequence, she should reserve a childcare place by paying an advance, while she might as well be unemployed after her maternity leave – so able to take care of her new-born herself. The upfront investment in childcare that she might need, presented an important dilemma to Jessica. Likewise, Clara, who lived mainly as a single mother, experienced difficulties to plan child care during holiday periods:

Moreover, both Kyra and Karel mentioned that they were not able to take up parental leave because of their status as a temporary agency worker. Specific conditions attached to many of these social benefits hamper temporary agency workers’ eligibility in practice. Workers are entitled to apply for parental leave if they have worked for 12 months with an employer during the 15 months preceding the application. Since temporary agency workers often change jobs, often go through periods of unemployment and are regularly employed for short periods, it is often not possible for most of them to invoke this right.

For Karel, the situation was different. He had difficulties to enforce his rights. Karel was entitled to parental leave, but his employer first lied and said that this was not the case. Later on, his employer(s) simply did not want to grant him the parental leave. He likes his job, which restrains him to give up the job or to protest out of fear of getting dismissed. This powerless position was mainly due to the subsequent weekly contracts he is offered. The parental leave he requested was aimed to support his son with learning difficulties. So, his powerless employment position prevented him from adequately supporting his son – something that was moreover hard to understand for his wife.

Spending time with family and division of household chores. Also, more generally, spending time within family can be affected. Marcus felt very tired of working in temporary jobs and in the meantime always searching for new jobs and opportunities. As a consequence, Lina and Marcus could spend less time with each other. Another thing were the household chores. Lina (who recently immigrated to Belgium) did all these tasks during this difficult period. Although she was not very happy doing these tasks, she knew it was only temporary and she felt it was her duty because she was not able to work legally in the country. This was one of the ways to make life easier for Marcus because he had to earn the money for their family.

Holidays and other types of leave. Holidays also popped up to be problematic. When temporary workers are hired during busier periods or to replace a worker, it is difficult for them to take a holiday. They are entitled to this right, but employers sometimes state beforehand to agency workers that they cannot take holidays – for example in cases when they are hired to bridge the busy period. Dirk said that he almost always finds jobs during the summer months as many permanent employees are then on vacation. However, he would also like to go on vacation during the summer – certainly because his wife works in education and his children study. Everyone in his family is at home when he has just started working. This is frustrating because it is impossible for them to plan a family vacation. Moreover, vacation does not feel the same for some temporary agency workers and their family. Marcus testified he was less relaxed because of job insecurity: “You never know whether you have a job when you return from holiday and how long it will last”.

In addition, other kinds of leave can be problematic for temporary agency workers. Chantal’s father needed care because of a surgery. She would have liked to take leave to look after her father, but this was not possible since she was hired to bridge a busy period in the client-company. Not accepting the job at all was not an option for financial reasons. Asking to take leave during the assignment would lower her chances of getting a permanent contract at the client-company.

Social life. Another theme raised in the interviews is social life. The amount of social activities and hobbies can decline because of being tired of working and searching for jobs during free time. Also, financial insecurity can detain social activities, such as a diner in a restaurant. Moreover, planning problems can occur. Some interviewees testified not to plan social activities because not knowing whether they will have a job that day. Many interviewees mentioned that ‘any sign of not being flexible’ – for example refusing a weekend assignment because of a planned social activity – is usually not appreciated by temporary employment agencies. Flexibility seems not to be mutual it appears:

Combination with other (leisure) activities. For others, the combination with hobbies or volunteering work becomes difficult. Dirk gives volleyball training to children at fixed times during the week. Many blue-collar temp agency jobs require flexible and overtime hours that are not possible to combine with volunteer work. However, Dirk made the rule for himself not to drop the volleyball and only to accept jobs that are combinable with his volunteering duties, by which his chances to get new assignments decrease.

For Mathias, the situation is different. Temporary agency work facilitates his planning because it is flexible. His hobby is artistic work. Unfortunately, he does not find enough projects to make a living of his passion. However, temporary agency jobs enable him to earn money during times that he does not have artistic projects. When something interesting pops up, he easily changes his planning by giving up his temporary agency job to work on an artistic project. For Mathias, temporary agency work is a flexible means to earn enough money while keeping his focus on his artistic projects.

Another positive example comes from Kyra. Kyra needs some challenge and new vibes in her working life and combines three different jobs. Actually, she is a freelancer with three more or less fixed jobs. She makes her own planning, combining the three jobs. She can choose to be self-employed, however she chose to be contracted through a temporary employment agency which serves as her official employer. This is more interesting for her in terms of social protection (e.g. temporary unemployment periods, maternity leave). In combination with the permanent, secure job of her husband, this gives her a feeling of security, while she can still work in a very flexible way, doing different jobs.

Likewise, Sandy benefits from the flexibility in temporary agency work. It enables her to change working days and hours depending on her schedule at school.

3.3Precarious employment, ‘precarious mood’?

Next to life course events and planning difficulties, precarious employment can also affect the self-respect, mood and mental well-being of workers and their families.

Feelings of inferiority. Some interviewees had the impression that being a temporary agency worker is ‘low status’ and saw themselves as inferior. The inferior self-image of many temporary agency workers is reaffirmed by concrete actions on and beyond the shop floor. Chantal complained not being informed about decisions in the client-company. She does not feel part of the company. Another complaint was that many firms did not invest in proper training for their temporary agency workers. Moreover, some interviewees testified that temporary agency workers often have to do the tasks the permanent workers refuse to do such as the dirty jobs or work at unsocial hours.

Moreover, Dirk testified that the client-company planned a social activity for their employees, but he – as a temporary agency worker – was not invited. This gnaws at him, but on the other side he does not want to attach to colleagues too much, because it is very plausible that he will not remain in the job. He wants to avoid the pain of losing good colleagues.

Marcus talked about a certain connection between the temporary agency workers. They feel that they are all ‘in the same shit’ – what shapes a connection, although it is a negative identity based on feelings of inferiority.

Feelings of inferiority often become worse or ‘confirmed’ because of actions of others beyond the work context. Many agency workers worry about what others think about them. They have the impression that people think they are inferior. Jessica, for example, feels uncertain about herself. She is ashamed about telling friends or acquaintances that she is a temporary agency worker – even though people don’t judge her literally.

Many interviewees testified that people asking about whether they will have a permanent contract makes them feel stressed and frustrated:

Influence on the mood of household/family members. In addition, other family members can suffer from the situation. Jana, the daughter of Dirk, testified that all her friends seem to have parents with ‘good jobs’. Those friends cannot understand the situation going on in her family. As a consequence, she almost never talks about this with her friends. It feels unjust because she thinks her family does not deserve this situation. She feels especially sad for her father because he is really trying hard to find a permanent job.

Even the extended family can be affected by the temporary position of a worker. Jessica told us that her mother is very worried about her daughter’s future. For Jessica, it is not pleasant to listen to her mother’s concerns, always questioning when she will get a permanent position. This reaffirms her feelings of inferiority and uncertainty.

Influence on the worker’s mindset. Moreover, being a temporary agency worker and having been confronted with many setbacks and lies from employers, can also affect people’s mindset in general. Dirk is already involuntary employed in different jobs as a temporary agency worker for 8 years. His goal is to get a permanent contract. This has been promised to him many times, but it always turned out to be a lie. This is frustrating him enormously and even makes him suspicious and mistrustful. He does not trust employers and politicians, doesn’t expect anything from them anymore and is worrying a lot.

Tensions in the household. For Tina and Raf, temporary agency work dominated their family life and time together in a negative way, since Tina was always worrying about her employment status.

Because of an accumulation of frustrations, some temporary agency workers or household members take out their frustration on their families. Her temporary work status was sometimes used as an accusation in family conflicts between Clara and her partner:

Furthermore, Dirk and Jessica admitted that they are often in a bad mood and this affects their families too. This is for example expressed in intolerance or anger against family members. Jana and Linda testified that they felt sorry for Dirk. They understand his frustration, feel compassion, and feel that he is caught in a powerless situation. Although the whole family knows that Dirk is a hard worker and that he should not blame himself for his employment situation, he feels bad about it and deals with it by being sarcastic.