Free radicals and oxidative stress: Mechanisms and therapeutic targets

Article type: Review Article

Authors: Hassan, Huda A. | Ahmed, Hind Sh.^* | Hassan, Dheefaf F.

Affiliations: Department of Chemistry, College of Education for Pure Science (Ibn Al-Haitham), University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq

Correspondence: [*] Corresponding author: Hind Sh. Ahmed, Department of Chemistry, College of Education for Pure Science (Ibn Al-Haitham), University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq. Tel.: +964 7703486192; E-mail: hind.sh.a@ihcoedu.uobaghdad.edu.iq.

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Free radicals are small extremely reactive species that have unpaired electrons. Free radicals include subgroups of reactive species, which are all a product of regular cellular metabolism. Oxidative stress happens when the free radicals production exceeds the capacity of the antioxidant system in the body’s cells. OBJECTIVE: The current review clarifies the prospective role of antioxidants in the inhibition and healing of diseases. METHODS: Information on oxidative stress, free radicals, reactive oxidant species, and natural and synthetic antioxidants was obtained by searching electronic databases like PubMed, Web of Science, and Science Direct, with articles published between 1987 and 2023 being included in this review. RESULTS: Free radicals exhibit a dual role in living systems. They are toxic byproducts of aerobic metabolism that lead to oxidative injury and tissue disorders and act as signals to activate appropriate stress responses. Endogenous and exogenous sources of reactive oxygen species are discussed in this review. Oxidative stress is a component of numerous diseases, including diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and cancer. Although various small molecules assessed as antioxidants have shown therapeutic prospects in preclinical studies, clinical trial outcomes have been inadequate. Understanding the mechanisms through which antioxidants act, where, and when they are active may reveal a rational approach that leads to more tremendous pharmacological success. This review studies the associations between oxidative stress, redox signaling, and disease, the mechanisms through which oxidative stress can donate to pathology, the antioxidant defenses, the limits of their effectiveness, and antioxidant defenses that can be increased through physiological signaling, dietary constituents, and probable pharmaceutical interference. Prospective clinical applications of enzyme mimics and current progress in metal- and non-metal-based materials with enzyme-like activities and protection against chronic diseases have been discussed. CONCLUSION: This review discussed oxidative stress as one of the main causes of illnesses, as well as antioxidant systems and their defense mechanisms that can be useful in inhibiting these diseases. Thus, the positive and deleterious effects of antioxidant molecules used to lessen oxidative stress in numerous human diseases are discussed. The optimal level of vitamins and minerals is the amount that achieves the best feed benefit, best growth rate, and health, including immune efficiency, and provides sufficient amounts to the body.

Keywords: Free radicals, reactive species, oxidative stress, enzymatic antioxidants, non-enzymatic antioxidants

DOI: 10.3233/HAB-240011

Journal: Human Antibodies, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 151-167, 2024